In Shenzhen, China (Jan. 2020), a patient with a travel history to Wuhan was admitted to the hospital with the clinical presentation of COVID-19.  The SARS-CoV-2 RNA test was persistently negative, but the plasma anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody was positive. 


COVID-19 Patients with Coinfection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Hepatitis C Virus

Co-infection of HIV and COVID-19 infection have been described globally, with current estimates (June 2020) putting HIV patients at <1% of COVID-19 cases. The overall case-fatality rate is 14% among HIV-coinfected patients (n = 300), about twice as high than the current rate in the general population though this varies between countries. In contrast to earlier studies regarding HIV co-infection with SARS-CoV-2, this review found that HIV patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) are not at decreased risk of COVID-19 infection and severe disease progression. Furthermore, after examination of CD4 cell counts, HIV-related immunosuppression does not confer protection by the prevention of cytokine storms and may increase the severity of COVID-19 disease instead.

Review: HIV/SARS‐CoV‐2 coinfection: a global perspective

HIV patients are thought to be at increased risk of COVID-19 infection due to their compromised immune system. People living with HIV (PLWH) are especially vulnerable during the pandemic as resources and services dedicated to treatment of HIV/AIDS are limited or diverted to counter the COVID-19 pandemic.

University of California, Davis

Following a primary infection of SARS-CoV-2, some patients acquire a secondary infection of SARS-CoV-2, or a co-infection with a different bacteria or virus

Secondary/Co-Infections of COVID-19

Kanwugu, O. N., & Adadi, P. HIV/SARS‐CoV‐2 coinfection: a global perspective. Journal of Medical Virology.

https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26321

HIV/SARS‐CoV‐2 coinfection: a global perspective

- Clinical Infectious Diseases Journal 
- European Respiratory Journal
- Journal of the American Medical Association
- Journal of Infection
- Journal of Medical Virology
- medRxiv
- The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease
- The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases
- World Health Organization

References for Secondary Infection of COVID-19 by Journal

Categories of Secondary Infections of COVID-19 

SARS-CoV-2 and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Co-infection

Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is endemic to many parts of the world. Of concern is the potential for co-infection with COVID-19 as both are spread via respiratory droplets and present with similar clinical symptoms. Due to the immunomodulatory nature of SARS-CoV-2, reactivation of latent TB infection is possible. Most diagnosis of COVID-19 may also miss TB in due to non-specific clinical features common to both diseases. TB infection may also be correlated to more severe COVID-19 disease progression, especially within endemic areas such as China and India. Active and latent TB infection can be considered to be risk factors for COVID-19. Tuberculosis should also be considered during diagnosis where patients are undergoing prolonged or unexplained clinical features.

SARS-CoV-2 and Tuberculosis (TB) Co-infection

A study showed that SARS neutralizing antibodies can successfully block SARS-CoV-2 entry into target cells in vitro, suggesting that the two viruses possess a cross-protective epitope and have similar immune protection against reinfection

SARS neutralizing antibodies and SARS-CoV-2


While COVID‐19 affects countries across the world, countries in South and South‐East Asia and Latin America are faced with the prospect of a second epidemic: dengue. The countries in South America like Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, and in the Southeast Asia like the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, and Indonesia are currently in the high risk of dengue outbreak as dengue infection is increasing at an alarming rate. Besides, several South Asian countries like India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are also suffering from dengue disease this year. Interestingly, almost all these countries are currently also suffering seriously from COVID‐19.

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