People often more readily believe information that they hear repeated than they believe novel information.

Illusory Truth Effect

If an individual is distracted or interrupted when they are presented with inaccurate information, they are more likely to misremember that incorrect information as being true.

Interrupted Falsehoods

A frustrating state of being in which one is having difficulty recalling information that is just out of reach.

Tip-Of-The-Tongue State (TOT State)

A semantic illusion; a phenomenon where listeners/readers fail to recognize an inaccuracy in a text.

When asked the question, "How many animals of each kind did Moses take on the ark?" people answer with "two", failing to recognize that it was Noah, not Moses, who took animals on the ark.

The Moses Illusion

The process by which a message, when paired with a discounting cue, has a delayed impact on the recipient. For example, if an individual sees the same advertisement on television every day, it begins to lose its initial appeal causing the individual to revert to his/her original attitude about the advertised product.

Sleeper Effect


The failure to engage in reflective, effortful reasoning when encountering new information.

Relying too heavily on our existing heuristic patterns without modifying them.

Cognitive Laziness

- interrupted falsehoods
- illusory truth effect
- Tip-of-the-tongue state
- fact checking
-	source monitoring
-	cognitive shortcuts/ properties of the knowledge base

Pepperdine University

University of California, Davis

Errors in one's knowledge system that lead them to believe that an inaccurate piece of information is true.

False Beliefs

Marsh, E. J., & Stanley, M. (2020). False beliefs: Byproducts of an adaptive knowledge base? In R. Greifeneder, M. Jaffé, E. J. Newman, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), The psychol- ogy of fake news: Accepting, sharing, and correcting misinformation (pp. 131–146). London: Routledge. 

False beliefs: Byproducts of an adaptive knowledge base? 

1. It takes more cognitive energy to disbelieve information than it does to believe it. Therefore, people are often automatically more inclined to believe information than they are to disbelieve it.  However, this is usually only true if one is explicitly asked to label the information as true or false.

2. Stimuli that are easier to process are more likely to be perceived as being true. Easy-to-read fonts, rhyming, and repetition, all make information seem more believable.

3. People often use their existing beliefs, schemas, and experiences to interpret information. They rarely remember information as it is presented to them but rather their interpretation of the information they received. Humans are wired to fill in gaps in information which allows for deviations and imperfections.

4. Knowledge is often isolated from when and how it was first learned. When recalling information one may not remember that the source of that information was unreliable. (source monitoring errors)

5. Knowledge is not always applied or readily recalled.(tip of the tongue state)

Properties of the knowledge base that can yield false beliefs

Although source monitoring may help individuals to more accurately evaluate the credibility of information and the source it came from, source monitoring is unlikely to be an effective means for dispelling false beliefs. Recalling the source of information every time one accesses knowledge is cognitively inefficient and unlikely to be consistently practiced. Additionally, a person's judgment regarding the credibility of a source may be inaccurate.

Source monitoring as a method for combating false beliefs 

1. Avoid repeating misinformation
2. Use simple language
3. Use photos
4. Use affirmative statements to instill new and more accurate information rather than just negating false information

Tips for debunking false beliefs 

Terms and Concepts Related to False Beliefs

- distribution of corrections: usually not successful
- debunking fake news is sometimes just as difficult as debunking misconceptions


Implications of False Beliefs

Collective delusions are false beliefs that have been spread within societies and amplified in social groups. Collective delusions can have catastrophic social consequences. An example of a harmful collective delusion within society is the belief that climate change is a hoax perpetrated by scientists seeking personal advantage, this can decrease people's intentions to minimize their carbon footprint. Another example is the false belief that pharmaceutical companies hide data about harmful side effects of vaccines which in turn reduces people's intentions to get vaccinated.

Learn Before

Related

Learn After