-	This study uses data from the National Test INVALSI for 2013, assessing reading and mathematical skills.
-	One the subsample of children whose test was supervised by an external inspector were used.
-	The sample was restricted to native children because of age and Italian fluency.
-	Information on their backgrounds were submitted from a questionnaire.


The Gender Gap in Mathematics Achievement: Evidence from Italian Data (Methods)

This strategy delivers consistent estimates under restrictive conditions.
-	Cross-sectional analyses do not allow exploring the development of inequalities as children grow.
-	In the absence of longitudinal data, they used pseudo-panel techniques to estimate simple dynamic models with repeated cross-sectional data.


Western Michigan University

According to The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), the average gender differential within OECD countries in mathematics at age 15 is 0.11 standard deviations in favor of males (OECD 2015). 
Italy is one of the countries with the largest gap, equal to 0.24 standard deviations. 


Possible explanations:
-	Gender-stereotypes in parent’s evaluation of children abilities
-	Females’ lower self-esteem in math
-	Socioeconomic status
-	Parental education and occupation
-	School educational methods


The Gender Gap in Mathematics Achievement: Evidence from Italian Data (Introduction)

Dalit Contini, Maria Laura Di Tommaso, Silvia Mendolia,
The gender gap in mathematics achievement: Evidence from Italian data,
Economics of Education Review,
Volume 58, 2017, Pages 32-42, ISSN 0272-7757,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.03.001.

The gender gap in mathematics achievement: Evidence from Italian data

First, they focused on the total effect of gender on average math achievement.
-	Dependent variable: standardized test scores
-	Independent variable: gender
-	Control variable: maternal & paternal education, socio-economic status of the family, geographical area and number of siblings

Second, if school characteristics influence learning
-	Exposed to similar environment:
-	Student body composition, learning targets, educational practices, gender stereotypes

Third, they shifted focus from the expected values to the entire test score distribution.
-	Analyze gender differences at different points of the ability distribution.
With these, an assessment of the existence of female disadvantages in math throughout the distribution can be made. It can also assess if the gap is stronger among low performing or top performing children.


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