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The TCP/IP Model

While the OSI model serves as the foundational conceptual framework for teaching, the Internet in practice uses the simpler TCP/IP model.

The TCP/IP model consolidates networking functions into four operational layers:

  • Link Layer: Handles physical connections and direct data movement between adjacent devices.
  • Internet Layer: Routes packets across multiple distinct networks using IP addressing.
  • Transport Layer: Delivers data end-to-end between programs running on host machines.
  • Application Layer: Encompasses the network applications and protocols that exchange user data directly.

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Updated 2026-09-04

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From Packets to Protocols: How Modern Networks Transmit Data @ University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Ch.1 Network Architecture and Layering - From Packets to Protocols: How Modern Networks Transmit Data @ University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Layered Network Models and Encapsulation - From Packets to Protocols: How Modern Networks Transmit Data @ University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

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