(a) course structure, (b) emotional support, and (c) communication medium.

New York University

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

University of California, Davis

-  how learners perceive psychological distance
-  what are the factors affecting learners’ perceptions of psychological distance
-  how learners’ perceptions of distance affect their learning
-  what are the effective strategies to minimize psychological distance

Psychological Aspects of Distance

So, H., & Brush, T. A. (2008). Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors. Computers & Education, 51(1), 318-336.

Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment

This framework, focusing on learning events, includes three types of interaction: (a) learner–content interaction, (b) learner–instructor interaction, and (c) learner–learner interaction.

Moore’s three types of interaction

Transactional distance is a learner’s perception of psychological and communication gaps caused by a physical separation from instructor and other learners. It is a continuous and relative construct determined by amounts of dialogue and structure. For example, when there are higher amounts of dialogue and less structure, a distance learner is likely to perceive a smaller degree of transactional distance. 

Transactional Distance Theory (Moore, 1991)

An affective learning outcome indicating the degree of: (a) learner reaction to values and quality of learning, and (b) motivation for learning.

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