In one type of phantom limb pain, the amputee thinks that the missing limb is twisted, which is why it is hurting. One treatment for such pain is placing a mirror reflecting the intact limb in the position of the missing limb. The patient repeatedly moves “both limbs,” allowing them to perceive the missing limb being untwisted, reducing pain. This suggests that visual stimuli may allow for the reinterpretation of pain arising from phantom limbs. 

Studies have suggested that the incorporation of neural prosthetics can also help alleviate phantom limb pain. 

Grinnell College


An example of neuropathic pain is Phantom Limb Pain, which is categorized as  constant pain, varying pain across the day, or as separate pain attacks differing in duration and intensity following the loss of a limb. 

•	Origin of Phantom Limb Pain 
•	Treatment of Phantom Limb Pain 


Phantom Limb Pain 


Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

The loss of sensory input from the amputated limb leads to maladaptive reorganization of the sensory cortex, wherein the deprived area of the primary sensorimotor cortex responds to inputs received from cortical neighbors. Neuronal reorganization in the peripheral somatosensory nervous system leads to maladaptive supraspinal changes such as map remodeling of the sensory cortex, loss of neurons and/or neuronal function, and alterations in neural and glial activity, leading to pain.

Origin of Phantom Limb Pain 

Treatment of Phantom Limb Pain 

Between 1940-45 W.R. Henderson and G.E. Smyth conducted a study in prisoner-of-war hospitals and camps in Germany to study the phenomenon of "phantom limbs." Close contact with many amputation cases over a long period provided an opportunity to study the phantoms. A series of observations were made about the "natural phantom," the patients' perceived voluntary movements, and abilities of the phantom.
**Note: As addressed in the study itself, the detailed notes were unavoidably lost in Germany at the end of World War 2. The paper has therefore been compiled from memory (ie. the prepared statistics could not be recalled clearly).

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