Associative memory is the unconscious retrieval and storage of information through association with other information. Associative memory can be acquired through two different learning processes: 

- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning

Associative memory

Non-associative memory is learning that occurs when a behavior toward a stimuli changes without the presence of any associated stimulus or event; in contrast to associative memory, no direct connection is made between stimuli and a respective response. There are two important processes of non-associative memory:

- Habituation
- Sensitization

Non-associative memory

Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory that stores information on how to perform skilled actions, such as riding a bicycle or driving a car. These skills are acquired through practice and repetition, gradually transitioning from conscious, deliberate actions to automatic behaviors. Once learned, these procedural memories are difficult to articulate verbally; an individual can perform the skill proficiently but often cannot explain the exact steps involved in the process.

Procedural Memory

Implicit priming is a form of implicit memory where exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious awareness. This effect occurs because the initial stimulus activates associated concepts within an individual's semantic network, making those related concepts more accessible for later tasks.

Implicit Priming

* Procedural memory
* Associative memory
* Non-associative memory 
* Priming

Columbia University

Implicit memories are a type of long-term memory that exists outside of conscious awareness. Although they are learned unconsciously and cannot be deliberately recalled, their existence is demonstrated through an individual's performance on certain tasks. These memories can influence both observable behaviors and cognitive processes without conscious recognition. A key characteristic is that individuals usually cannot articulate or put these memories into words that adequately describe the learned task or knowledge.

Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

- Camina, E., Güel, F. (2017). The Neuroanatomical, Neurophysiological and Psychological Basis of Memory: Current Models and Their Origins. Front. Pharmacol. 8:438. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00438

- Kreitzer, A. C. (2009). Physiology and pharmacology of striatal neurons. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 32, 127–147. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135422

- Spielman, R. M, et. al. (2020). Psychology 2e. OpenStax.

- Mackintosh, J. N. (1999). Classical and instrumental conditioning. Encyclopedia Britannica.

- McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 21). Classical conditioning. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html

References for implicit memory

Types of Implicit Memory

A useful metaphor for understanding implicit memory is to compare it to a computer program running in the background. Just as a background process can influence a computer's operations without the user being actively aware of it, implicit memories shape behaviors and cognitive functions without entering conscious thought.

Computer Metaphor for Implicit Memory

Implicit memory is classified into several main subtypes. These include procedural memory (how to do things), priming (where exposure to one stimulus affects responses to a later one), and implicit emotional conditioning (classically conditioned emotional responses that occur without conscious awareness).

A musician has been playing the guitar for 20 years and can effortlessly play complex songs without looking at their hands or consciously thinking about the finger placements for each chord. However, when a student asks them to verbally describe the exact sequence of finger movements for a fast-paced solo, the musician struggles to articulate the steps. Which of the following statements best explains this situation?

Because implicit memories operate outside conscious awareness and cannot be deliberately recalled, they are typically studied using cognitive demand tasks. Researchers use tasks such as performance on artificial grammars, word memory tests, and the learning of unspoken contingencies and rules to measure implicit memory. In these scenarios, learning is demonstrated through an individual's observable behaviors or task performance, even though they usually cannot articulate the rules or memory in words.

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