- Camina, E., Güel, F. (2017). The Neuroanatomical, Neurophysiological and Psychological Basis of Memory: Current Models and Their Origins. Front. Pharmacol. 8:438. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00438

- Kreitzer, A. C. (2009). Physiology and pharmacology of striatal neurons. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 32, 127–147. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135422

- Spielman, R. M, et. al. (2020). Psychology 2e. OpenStax.

- Mackintosh, J. N. (1999). Classical and instrumental conditioning. Encyclopedia Britannica.

- McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 21). Classical conditioning. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html

References for implicit memory

* Procedural memory
* Associative memory
* Non-associative memory 
* Priming

Types of Implicit Memory

A useful metaphor for understanding implicit memory is to compare it to a computer program running in the background. Just as a background process can influence a computer's operations without the user being actively aware of it, implicit memories shape behaviors and cognitive functions without entering conscious thought.

Computer Metaphor for Implicit Memory

Implicit memory is classified into several main subtypes. These include procedural memory (how to do things), priming (where exposure to one stimulus affects responses to a later one), and implicit emotional conditioning (classically conditioned emotional responses that occur without conscious awareness).

A musician has been playing the guitar for 20 years and can effortlessly play complex songs without looking at their hands or consciously thinking about the finger placements for each chord. However, when a student asks them to verbally describe the exact sequence of finger movements for a fast-paced solo, the musician struggles to articulate the steps. Which of the following statements best explains this situation?

Because implicit memories operate outside conscious awareness and cannot be deliberately recalled, they are typically studied using cognitive demand tasks. Researchers use tasks such as performance on artificial grammars, word memory tests, and the learning of unspoken contingencies and rules to measure implicit memory. In these scenarios, learning is demonstrated through an individual's observable behaviors or task performance, even though they usually cannot articulate the rules or memory in words.

Implicit Memory Research Tasks

Implicit memories are a type of long-term memory that exists outside of conscious awareness. Although they are learned unconsciously and cannot be deliberately recalled, their existence is demonstrated through an individual's performance on certain tasks. These memories can influence both observable behaviors and cognitive processes without conscious recognition. A key characteristic is that individuals usually cannot articulate or put these memories into words that adequately describe the learned task or knowledge.

Columbia University

Google

Trinity College (CT)

Michigan State University

- Functional perspectives on learning and memory
- Brain regions for Nondeclarative memory
- Neural mechanisms of memory storage
- How Learning and Memory changes with Age

Learning and Memory

Long-term memory is broadly categorized into two main types: explicit and implicit. This distinction is crucial because various factors, such as the aging process, specific kinds of brain trauma, and certain disorders, can selectively affect one type of memory while leaving the other intact.

Types of Long-Term Memory: Explicit and Implicit

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

- May be either presynaptic, postsynaptic, or both kinds of changes in the brain
- More neurotransmitters are released 
- Number of receptors increases
- Inputs from other neurons---> increased depolarization or hyperpolarization

Synaptic Plasticity- Changes in the Brain 

Different forms of both learning and memory can be found by simply examining the ways in which these forms fail. This can be done through clinical studies that discover the mechanisms of the brain that surround learning and memory.

Functional Perspectives on Learning and Memory

There are multiple cellular and physiological underpinnings that surround memory. The existing synapses in the brain can be altered due to new learning which creates biochemical signals that are involved in those synaptic changes. This connects to memory because the formation of new memories involves additions of new synapses or new neurons.

Neural mechanisms of memory storage

Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory

Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, refers to information that we consciously try to remember, recall, and report. This type of memory can be articulated in words. For instance, the material learned while studying for an exam is part of explicit memory. Using a computer analogy, explicit memories are like files saved on a hard drive; they are not always on the 'desktop' of short-term memory but can be retrieved when needed. However, not all explicit memories are equally strong, and some may require prompts to be recalled.

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