Empirical studies have found associations between academic anxiety and increased problematic smartphone use (PSU). According to Spielberger (1972), situations that induce anxiety and are viewed as threatening may cause behavioral reactions, such as smartphone use, to serve as a coping mechanism. However, findings regarding the direction of this relationship are mixed; some studies report that higher smartphone usage leads to higher levels of anxiety, while others suggest that higher levels of anxiety result in increased self-reported phone use.