- Zinc helps regulate the immune system
- Zn2+ can serve as an antiviral agent 
- Zn2+ inhibits the replication of the SARS-CoV-2 virus
- Chloroquine allows Zn2+ ions to enter the cell
- When Zn2+ is used in alcoholics, after being released from papain-like protease in SARS-CoV, it results in the adverse effect of protein damage
- Zn2+ aids WBCs in interferon production 
- At doses greater than 75 mg each day, zinc (particularly zinc acetate) was shown to increase recovery in those with a cold
- Children presenting with RSV (respiratory syncytial virus) pneumonia has low levels of zinc
- Zn prevents RSV from replicating
- Zn2+ may have an anti-inflammatory effect on the lungs of those with pneumonia


Zinc and respiration associated with COVID-19 

- The S-protein aids SARS-CoV-2 to bind to ACE2 receptor on the pneumocyte
- The virus is then taken in through endocytosis into the cytoplasm where the RNA of virus is released
- Zn2+ is replicated and then transcribed in the pneumocyte
- Virions then exit the pneumocyte through exocytosis
- Lack of Zn results in the secretion of perforin, which attacks the virus as well (seen in lymphocyte)
- Zinc activates the receptors present on the cell membrane (CD25 and CD69) and other T cells receptors
- Zn2+ causes the thymus gland to secrete thymulin
- Thymulin leads to the increase in T-cell action to fight the virus 
- The alveolar macrophage Zn can break down the virus with enzymes present in the phagolysosome
- Processed Ag will then be presented by the MHC

Michigan State University

- Zn is a lewis acid, meaning it accepts electrons
- Zn2+ is stable
- Zn2+ is able to cause apoptosis
- Zn activates the NF-kB pathway, which results in the formation of cytokines that cause inflammation
- Zn inhibits the entry of the COVID-19 virus
- 10 uM Zn-sulfate and Zinc-acetate can cut down RNA replication by 50%
- Chloroquine can be used to prevent functioning of ACE2 receptors (which then prevents inflammation)
- Chloroquine, similar to zinc, prevents the virus from being replicated
- When non-protonated, chloroquine is considered to be found in acidic organelles (located in golgi apparatus, lysosomes)
- Chloroquine can transport zinc ions and increases the uptake of those ions through lysosomes
- Zinc and chloroquine, when combined, results in death of malignant cells due to an increase in chloroquine cytotoxicity
- Ovarian cancer was treated with chloroquine containing zinc chloride. Normal cells/ non malignant cells contained extremely low levels of Zinc without chloroquine
- Zinc directly inhibits the replication of the COVID-19 virus


Potential use of zinc and chloroquine in treating COVID-19

Rahman, M. T., & Idid, S. Z. (2020). Can Zn Be a Critical Element in COVID-19 Treatment?. Biological Trace Element Research, 1-9.

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