- B-Cell Immunity in COVID-19
- T-Cell Immunity in COVID-19
Adaptive response process
- Blood brings the cells throughout the body as normal where the B cells are working alongside t cells to go into the plasma where they produce antibodies specific to the antigen.  
- A neutralizing antibody is efficient in fully blocking the virus from entering the host cells. This helps limit the infection and relapse. 
- The overall adaptive immune response is directed by helper T cells, and cytotoxic T cells play a vital role in the clearance and cleaning of viral-infected cells
- Adaptive immune response against coronavirus requires stimulation of B cell and T cell epitopes


Adaptive Immune Response to COVID-19

**Specificity** and **memory** are achieved by  programming certain cells in the immune response to respond rapidly to exposures of the pathogen. This programming occurs as a result of the first exposure to a pathogen or vaccine, which triggers a **primary response**.    

Primary Response of the Adaptive Immune System

There are two branches of the adaptive immune system:
- Humoral Immunity
- Cellular Immunity

Branches of the Adaptive Immune System

Adaptive immunity can be classified as either active or passive immunity.

Classifications of Adaptive Immunity

Adaptive immunity is defined by two important characteristics: specificity and memory. Specificity refers to the adaptive immune system’s ability to target specific pathogens, and memory refers to its ability to quickly respond to pathogens to which it has previously been exposed. These elements synergistically work with the innate response in order to completely control antigens.

Austin Community College

Michigan State University

The mechanisms by which an organism eliminates pathogenic microbes and allergenic or toxic proteins, collectively known as antigens, in order to maintain normal function.  

Immune Response

Chaplin, D. D. (2010). Overview of the immune response. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 125(2), S3-S23.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2923430/
doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.12.980

Overview of the Immune Response

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Microbiology covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. Microbiology’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.

Microbiology is produced through a collaborative publishing agreement between OpenStax and the American Society for Microbiology Press. The book aligns with the curriculum guidelines of the American Society for Microbiology.

OpenStax Microbiology Textbook

The innate immune response recognizes molecular patterns that are shared by foreign microbes and potential toxins and works via genes in an organism's germ line to eliminate these threats.  This is an organism's first line of immune response, and because a large number of cells in an organism express genes related to innate immunity, the response is very quick.  

Innate Immune Response

Adaptive Immune Response

Regulators of Immune Responses

Infection by SARS-CoV-2, as is with other viral infections, induces a two-phased immune response in the human body, described in the figure below: 
- Innate (rapid, natural, non-specific) 
- Adaptive (slow, acquired, specific)

Those two branches of the immune system cooperate with one another, and can be distinguished based on the cell-types involved (immune response vs white blood cells). However, the adaptive system is further broken down by the type of mechanism:

- Cell-mediated
- Antibody-mediated

Current research around COVID-19 immunity aims at uncovering the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and the host's immune response, with questions related to pathogenesis, severity, and intervention.

Immune Response to COVID-19 

Many pediatric patients with MIS-C have had fever and mucocutaneous manifestations similar to those of Kawasaki Disease (KD), a rare childhood illness that causes inflammation in the walls of blood vessels and coronary-artery aneurysms. Although the cause of KD remains unknown, an active or preceding infection has been suspected. Some of the KD–like features of MIS-C are also seen in toxic shock syndrome, which has been associated with other viruses.


Relationship Between MIS-C, Kawasaki Disease (KD), and Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS)

- RV Type 2
- RV Type 9
- RV Type 14 
- Respiratory syncytial virus
- Coronavirus type 229E


The Immune Response and Respiratory Viruses

Research suggests that stress affects immunology mainly through autonomic nerves innervating lymphoid tissue, hormone-mediated alteration of immune cells, or adoption of coping behaviors.

Stress and Immunology

Mindfulness mediation has been tied to a stronger immune system. A study found that participants who practiced mindfulness meditation exhibited a stronger response to flu vaccinations than participants who did not practice meditation. 

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