The innate immune response recognizes molecular patterns that are shared by foreign microbes and potential toxins and works via genes in an organism's germ line to eliminate these threats.  This is an organism's first line of immune response, and because a large number of cells in an organism express genes related to innate immunity, the response is very quick.  

Innate Immune Response

Adaptive immunity is defined by two important characteristics: specificity and memory. Specificity refers to the adaptive immune system’s ability to target specific pathogens, and memory refers to its ability to quickly respond to pathogens to which it has previously been exposed. These elements synergistically work with the innate response in order to completely control antigens.

Adaptive Immune Response

Regulators of Immune Responses

Infection by SARS-CoV-2, as is with other viral infections, induces a two-phased immune response in the human body, described in the figure below: 
- Innate (rapid, natural, non-specific) 
- Adaptive (slow, acquired, specific)

Those two branches of the immune system cooperate with one another, and can be distinguished based on the cell-types involved (immune response vs white blood cells). However, the adaptive system is further broken down by the type of mechanism:

- Cell-mediated
- Antibody-mediated

Current research around COVID-19 immunity aims at uncovering the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and the host's immune response, with questions related to pathogenesis, severity, and intervention.

Immune Response to COVID-19 

Many pediatric patients with MIS-C have had fever and mucocutaneous manifestations similar to those of Kawasaki Disease (KD), a rare childhood illness that causes inflammation in the walls of blood vessels and coronary-artery aneurysms. Although the cause of KD remains unknown, an active or preceding infection has been suspected. Some of the KD–like features of MIS-C are also seen in toxic shock syndrome, which has been associated with other viruses.


Relationship Between MIS-C, Kawasaki Disease (KD), and Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS)

- RV Type 2
- RV Type 9
- RV Type 14 
- Respiratory syncytial virus
- Coronavirus type 229E


The Immune Response and Respiratory Viruses

Research suggests that stress affects immunology mainly through autonomic nerves innervating lymphoid tissue, hormone-mediated alteration of immune cells, or adoption of coping behaviors.

Stress and Immunology

Mindfulness mediation has been tied to a stronger immune system. A study found that participants who practiced mindfulness meditation exhibited a stronger response to flu vaccinations than participants who did not practice meditation. 

Mindfulness Effects on Immune Response

The mechanisms by which an organism eliminates pathogenic microbes and allergenic or toxic proteins, collectively known as antigens, in order to maintain normal function.  

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- Genetics and Inheritance
- Immune response
- Maintaining homeostasis
- Neuroscience (Neurobiology)
- Organs

Focuses of Human physiology

The fight or flight response, while evolutionarily adaptive for acute physical threats, can be detrimental to health when persistently activated by modern psychological stressors. Since these threats often cannot be resolved by fighting or fleeing, the body experiences prolonged stress, which can lead to negative health outcomes. Research has linked this chronic exposure to an increased susceptibility to heart disease and impaired functioning of the immune system.

Health Consequences of Chronic Activation of the Fight or Flight Response

Chaplin, D. D. (2010). Overview of the immune response. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 125(2), S3-S23.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2923430/
doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.12.980

Overview of the Immune Response

https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology/

Microbiology covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. Microbiology’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.

Microbiology is produced through a collaborative publishing agreement between OpenStax and the American Society for Microbiology Press. The book aligns with the curriculum guidelines of the American Society for Microbiology.

OpenStax Microbiology Textbook

The scientific field of study of nervous system function and development. The human nervous system is comprised of the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral  (nerves and ganglia branching from brain and spinal cord) nervous systems. These are referred to as the CNS and PNS, respectively.

Neuroscience (Neurobiology)

The tendency in body systems to maintain a stable environment.  When homeostasis is disturbed, the body works to return itself to what it considers stable via negative feedback loops.  

Homeostasis

Immune Response

Human Organs

The scientific field of study of traits and their passage from parents to offspring. Humans inherit 23 chromosomes from the father, and 23 from the mother. These 23 pairs of chromosomes consist of 22 autosomal chromosome pairs and one sex chromosome pair. The physical unit of inheritance is a gene, comprised of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) segments.

Genetics and Inheritance in Humans

An individual's tendency for stress reactivity can be wired by early experiences of trauma. Such early traumatic experiences can shape how strongly a person reacts to perceived threats later in life, contributing to the negative health consequences associated with persistent and repeated exposure to psychological stress.

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