The main areas of the brain involved in procedural memory are the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, and the limbic system.

- The striatum, a structure inside the basal ganglia, receives information from the cerebral cortex and is the "main gateway for information to the basal ganglia" (Camina, E., Güel, F., 2017). 

- The cerebellum enables the execution of movements and perfection of motor agility necessary for procedural learning. Studies have linked it to the region responsible for automating unconscious skills during the learning phase (Kreitzer, 2009). 

- Finally, the limbic system acts almost as the control tower for procedural memories. As well, brain areas activated when procedural memories are being performed can be followed by a special protein membrane that runs through the limbic system.

Procedural Memory: Relevant Brain Regions

The case of patient H.M. provides a compelling example of the cerebellum's role in procedural memory. While H.M. was unable to form new explicit memories after his surgery, he could still learn and remember new motor tasks. This ability is believed to have been preserved because his cerebellum remained undamaged.

Example of Cerebellum's Role in Procedural Memory: Case of H.M.

An experiment with rabbits illustrates the cerebellum's role in classical conditioning. Researchers conditioned the animals to blink upon receiving a puff of air to their eyes. After sustaining damage to their cerebellums, the rabbits lost the ability to learn this conditioned eye-blink response, demonstrating the cerebellum's necessity for this type of implicit memory formation.

Example of Cerebellum's Role in Classical Conditioning: Rabbit Eye-Blink Experiment

Given the specific set of impairments described in the case study, which single brain structure is most likely affected? Justify your answer by explaining how the patient's symptoms relate to the primary functions of this structure.

Clinical Scenario: Motor Skill Impairment

To control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, the cerebellum receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in the ear.

Sensory Inputs to the Cerebellum

The cerebellum, a hindbrain structure known as the 'little brain,' governs balance, coordination, and motor skills. It also plays a critical role in processing and storing implicit memories. This includes procedural memory for tasks, motor learning, and classical conditioning. Consequently, damage to the cerebellum can impair the ability to learn conditioned responses.

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New Mexico Highlands University

Columbia University

The parts of the hindbrain include:

- Medulla
- Pons
- Cerebellum

Parts of the Hindbrain

Contrary to the earlier belief that memory involves the entire brain, research following Lashley's work has demonstrated that memory functions are localized. Specific brain regions and even individual neurons play key roles in forming memories. The primary structures identified as crucial for memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex.

Key Brain Structures Involved in Memory

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/ 

APA Dictionary of Psychology

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

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Contained within the hindbrain, the medulla regulates the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. Along with the pons and other structures, it forms the brainstem, which spans both the midbrain and the hindbrain.

Medulla

Deriving its name from the Latin word for 'bridge,' the pons is a hindbrain structure that connects the hindbrain with other brain regions. It also plays a role in managing brain activity levels during sleep.

Pons

Cerebellum

A patient is brought to the emergency room after a fall. While their breathing and heart rate are stable, they are unable to walk in a straight line and have great difficulty performing coordinated actions like touching their finger to their nose. This loss of balance and motor coordination suggests damage to which part of the hindbrain?

The hippocampus, a structure within the temporal lobes, is central to learning and memory. It is essential for consolidating new information into long-term memory, a process that involves transferring new learning for permanent storage. Research has shown its specific involvement in normal recognition memory and spatial memory, as demonstrated in studies where rats with hippocampal lesions showed impairment in tasks like object recognition and maze running. Furthermore, the hippocampus projects information to cortical regions, which helps to give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. It is also critical for contextualized emotional learning. The famous case of patient H.M., who could not form new memories after his hippocampus was removed, provided significant evidence for its role.

Hippocampus

The amygdala is a key brain structure that plays a central role in processing and relaying emotional information, making it a major focus of research into the biological basis of emotions like fear and anxiety. It is composed of various subnuclei and has a crucial role in memory, influencing how memories are stored—a process affected by stress hormones—and is involved in memory consolidation, the transfer of new learning into long-term memory. This is facilitated by enabling a deeper level of memory encoding for emotionally arousing events.

Amygdala

A part of the frontal lobe that is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning and focuses on "in the moment" or rash behavior (decision-making, problem solving, and so on). This area is also responsible for the development of personality. The PFC has a handful of (not universally agreed upon) subdivisions:

- Dorsomedial
- Dorsolateral
- Ventromedial
- Ventrolateral
- Orbitofrontal

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

The dentate gyrus is a structure within the hippocampus that aids in the processing of memory.

The Dentate Gyrus

The entorhinal cortex acts similarly to a gateway in the brain, allowing information to enter and exit the memory processing area of the brain, the hippocampus.

Entorhinal Cortex

Neurons are specialized cells located in the nervous system that send information between different parts of the body and the brain.

Neurons

Several key neurotransmitters, including epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine, are understood to be involved in memory processes. While the precise function of each neurotransmitter is still a subject of ongoing research and debate, it is established that the communication between neurons facilitated by these chemicals is fundamental for the formation of new memories.

Role of Neurotransmitters in Memory

The cerebellum's primary function in memory is the processing of procedural memories, which are the memories for skills and routine actions.

Role of the Cerebellum in Memory

The hippocampus serves a critical function in memory as the primary site where new memories are encoded.

Role of the Hippocampus in Memory

The amygdala influences memory by helping to determine which pieces of information are stored as memories. This process is guided by the strength of the emotional response associated with an event.

Role of the Amygdala in Memory

A patient is involved in a car accident and sustains a localized brain injury. After the accident, they are unable to form new long-term memories of events or facts, such as what they ate for breakfast or the name of their new doctor. However, they can still recall memories from their childhood and can learn new physical skills, like a new dance routine, with practice. Their emotional responses to events seem normal. Based on this information, which brain structure is most likely to have been damaged, and why?

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