When two neurons repeatedly become stimulated, the signal transmission between them gets enhanced. This enhancement is known as long-term potentiation (LTP). 

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

Neurons consist of several different parts, each serving a specialized function. A neuron’s outer surface is made up of a semipermeable membrane. Other parts of the neuron include the dendrite, cell body, axon, and terminal buttons. A myelin sheath covers part of the neuron.

Anatomy of a Neuron

Neurons are specialized cells located in the nervous system that send information between different parts of the body and the brain.

University of Chicago

New Mexico Highlands University

A human's nervous system is in charge of managing our cognitions, movements, and responses. It is comprised of billions of neurons, glial cells, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. 

Nervous System

Contrary to the earlier belief that memory involves the entire brain, research following Lashley's work has demonstrated that memory functions are localized. Specific brain regions and even individual neurons play key roles in forming memories. The primary structures identified as crucial for memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex.

Key Brain Structures Involved in Memory

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

The nervous system's capacity to change and adapt is known as neuroplasticity. This adaptation can be triggered by various factors, such as personal experiences, normal developmental stages, or in response to damage or injury. The underlying mechanisms of neuroplasticity include the formation of new synapses, the elimination of unused ones, modifications in glial cells, and even the generation of new neurons. While the brain's plasticity is at its peak during early life, it retains a significant capacity for change and reorganization throughout adulthood.

Neuroplasticity

Psychologists who aim to study the human mind require a basic understanding of the two primary subdivisions of the nervous system:
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 

Parts of the Nervous System

Neurons

The hypothalamus is a brain structure that regulates various homeostatic processes, including blood pressure, appetite, and body temperature. It serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system, and it controls the hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland. Furthermore, it is involved in regulating sexual behavior and motivation.

Hypothalamus

The nervous system is structurally divided into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Visual illustrations typically distinguish these two by depicting the brain and spinal cord for the CNS, and the extensive network of connecting nerves throughout the body for the PNS.

Two Major Subdivisions of the Nervous System

Imagine a person accidentally touches a hot pan. They instantly withdraw their hand. Which statement best breaks down how their nervous system coordinated this rapid, involuntary response?

The hippocampus, a structure within the temporal lobes, is central to learning and memory. It is essential for consolidating new information into long-term memory, a process that involves transferring new learning for permanent storage. Research has shown its specific involvement in normal recognition memory and spatial memory, as demonstrated in studies where rats with hippocampal lesions showed impairment in tasks like object recognition and maze running. Furthermore, the hippocampus projects information to cortical regions, which helps to give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. It is also critical for contextualized emotional learning. The famous case of patient H.M., who could not form new memories after his hippocampus was removed, provided significant evidence for its role.

Hippocampus

The amygdala is a key brain structure that plays a central role in processing and relaying emotional information, making it a major focus of research into the biological basis of emotions like fear and anxiety. It is composed of various subnuclei and has a crucial role in memory, influencing how memories are stored—a process affected by stress hormones—and is involved in memory consolidation, the transfer of new learning into long-term memory. This is facilitated by enabling a deeper level of memory encoding for emotionally arousing events.

Amygdala

A part of the frontal lobe that is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning and focuses on "in the moment" or rash behavior (decision-making, problem solving, and so on). This area is also responsible for the development of personality. The PFC has a handful of (not universally agreed upon) subdivisions:

- Dorsomedial
- Dorsolateral
- Ventromedial
- Ventrolateral
- Orbitofrontal

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

The cerebellum, a hindbrain structure known as the 'little brain,' governs balance, coordination, and motor skills. It also plays a critical role in processing and storing implicit memories. This includes procedural memory for tasks, motor learning, and classical conditioning. Consequently, damage to the cerebellum can impair the ability to learn conditioned responses.

Cerebellum

The dentate gyrus is a structure within the hippocampus that aids in the processing of memory.

The Dentate Gyrus

The entorhinal cortex acts similarly to a gateway in the brain, allowing information to enter and exit the memory processing area of the brain, the hippocampus.

Entorhinal Cortex

Several key neurotransmitters, including epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine, are understood to be involved in memory processes. While the precise function of each neurotransmitter is still a subject of ongoing research and debate, it is established that the communication between neurons facilitated by these chemicals is fundamental for the formation of new memories.

Role of Neurotransmitters in Memory

The cerebellum's primary function in memory is the processing of procedural memories, which are the memories for skills and routine actions.

Role of the Cerebellum in Memory

The hippocampus serves a critical function in memory as the primary site where new memories are encoded.

Role of the Hippocampus in Memory

The amygdala influences memory by helping to determine which pieces of information are stored as memories. This process is guided by the strength of the emotional response associated with an event.

Role of the Amygdala in Memory

A patient is involved in a car accident and sustains a localized brain injury. After the accident, they are unable to form new long-term memories of events or facts, such as what they ate for breakfast or the name of their new doctor. However, they can still recall memories from their childhood and can learn new physical skills, like a new dance routine, with practice. Their emotional responses to events seem normal. Based on this information, which brain structure is most likely to have been damaged, and why?

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