The nervous system's capacity to change and adapt is known as neuroplasticity. This adaptation can be triggered by various factors, such as personal experiences, normal developmental stages, or in response to damage or injury. The underlying mechanisms of neuroplasticity include the formation of new synapses, the elimination of unused ones, modifications in glial cells, and even the generation of new neurons. While the brain's plasticity is at its peak during early life, it retains a significant capacity for change and reorganization throughout adulthood.

Neuroplasticity

Psychologists who aim to study the human mind require a basic understanding of the two primary subdivisions of the nervous system:
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 

Parts of the Nervous System

Neurons are specialized cells located in the nervous system that send information between different parts of the body and the brain.

Neurons

The hypothalamus is a brain structure that regulates various homeostatic processes, including blood pressure, appetite, and body temperature. It serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system, and it controls the hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland. Furthermore, it is involved in regulating sexual behavior and motivation.

Hypothalamus

The nervous system is structurally divided into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Visual illustrations typically distinguish these two by depicting the brain and spinal cord for the CNS, and the extensive network of connecting nerves throughout the body for the PNS.

Two Major Subdivisions of the Nervous System

Imagine a person accidentally touches a hot pan. They instantly withdraw their hand. Which statement best breaks down how their nervous system coordinated this rapid, involuntary response?

A human's nervous system is in charge of managing our cognitions, movements, and responses. It is comprised of billions of neurons, glial cells, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. 

University of Chicago

Google

New Mexico Highlands University

Trinity College (CT)

The scientific field of study of nervous system function and development. The human nervous system is comprised of the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral  (nerves and ganglia branching from brain and spinal cord) nervous systems. These are referred to as the CNS and PNS, respectively.

Neuroscience (Neurobiology)

The human anatomy is comprised by many body systems, including:
* Nervous system
* Respiratory system
* Circulatory system
* Gastro-Intestinal (digestive) system
* Skeletal system
* Endocrine system
* Reproductive system
* Lymphatic system
* Immune system

Human Anatomy

- Skin & Eye
- Respiratory System 
- Urogenital System 
- Digestive System 
- Circulatory System
- Lymphatic System
- Nervous System
- Immune System

Body Systems Affected by Disease

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

COVID-19 patients have shown symptoms of direct and indirect neurological effects, from changes in taste and smell, to immunologic factors in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).  It is unknown whether these phenomena are the result of neurological damage, of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and/or of indirect effects of the immune response. Furthermore, studies in mice have shown that neurons are susceptible to infection, suggesting that cells of the CNS may contribute to the deteriorating breathing and respiratory function of COVID-19 patients. The image below is an early hypothesized mechanism of viral entry through nasal and oral mucosa cells, though there is not yet any evidence to support this hypothesis.

Effects of COVID-19 on the Central Nervous System

Even in the absence of typical respiratory symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath, various patients diagnosed with COVID-19 have presented neurological symptoms, such as:

- acute cerebrovascular diseases

- impaired consciousness

-  skeletal muscle injury

- encephalopathy (symptoms: ischemic stroke)

- loss of smell (anosmia) and taste (ageusia)

- stroke

- cranial nerve deficits

- delirium

- meningitis

- paralysis

- seizures

- neuroinflammatory syndromes

- high pressure CSF

- muscle stiffness

The list below includes less-common neurological symptoms of COVID-19:
- Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS)
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)

Neurological symptoms Presented in COVID-19 Patients

The study of the physiological basis for cognition.

Cognitive Neuroscience

- Brain
- Neurons
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Neurological diseases
- Central nervous system (CNS)

Focuses of neuroscience (neurobiology) 

An intersection between psychology, neuroscience and economics that studies how brain activation corresponds with decisions of gains and losses.

Neuroeconomics

As the relapse prevention model discusses, many individuals recovering from addiction return to their behavior at some point during/after treatment. Researchers have begun to look at this idea of relapse and relapse prevention from a neuroscience perspective. This perspective could help further the understanding of why, on a brain level, individuals relapse and how we could possibly help. There is not a large consensus yet, but the research is looking at many factors including pathways, styles, and stages of recovery, as well as the possibility of reversing or diminishing the brain dysregulation that results from addiction.

Neuroscience approach to relapse and relapse prevention

The study of behavior, emotion, and cognition and how they relate to brain function

Neuropsychology

This looks at how behavior and the environment are affecting the neural development of humans through their lifetime.

Behavioral Neuroscience

Discipline that is concerned with hormonal development, its interaction with the nervous system, its secretion and associated physiological and behavioral effects.

Neuroendocrinology

A distinct line of inquiry with the goal of understanding which systems of the brain are activated during mindfulness practice to determine the effects that both short and long-term practice has on brain function and structure.

Neurobiology of Mindfulness

The study of Emotion Regulation within the lens of Neurobiology. More specifically, understanding what brain functions correspond to Emotion Regulation. 

The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation

Biopsychology, also known as biological psychology, is a subfield of psychology that examines the influence of biological processes on behavior. It typically focuses on the immediate causes of behavior rooted in the physiology of an organism, with a primary emphasis on the nervous system's structure and function. This field is highly interdisciplinary, drawing on expertise from researchers with backgrounds in biology, medicine, physiology, and chemistry, and is considered a key component within the broader field of neuroscience.

Biopsychology (Biological Psychology)

Nervous System

A person accidentally touches a hot surface and immediately withdraws their hand. Which of the following best analyzes the roles of the two major divisions of the nervous system in this reflex action?

The endocrine system is a network of glands responsible for secreting hormones that regulate normal bodily functions.

Endocrine System

The urogenital system is a term for the urinary and reproductive systems in human anatomy.
- Urinary Tract
- Reproductive system 

Urogenital system

Skin & Eye

The digestive system, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, helps the body digest and process food, starting with the mouth and ending at the anus. The digestive system is vulnerable to pathogenic attacks, hence GI diseases are quite common. Such diseases include those caused by infection or intoxication, the former often being caused by contaminated food and water.

Digestive System

A closed system of organs and vessels that circulate blood around the body to deliver oxygen, nutrients, and immune factors to tissues and to carry out waste products.

Circulatory System

A network of  vessels that manages fluid levels within the body, produces immune cells that combat infection, and filters out foreign bodies.

Lymphatic System

The respiratory system is responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and removing carbon dioxide from it. It includes the nose, lungs, and other structures involved in breathing and gas exchange.

Respiratory System

An autoimmune disease is a condition that arises when the immune system malfunctions, erroneously identifying the body's own healthy cells as foreign invaders and launching repeated attacks against them. The specific effects of an autoimmune disease vary depending on which part of the body is targeted by the immune response.

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