- Levels of analysis
- Neurons
- Brain
- Learning and Memory
- Attention and Higher Cognition
- Language and Lateralization

Focuses of cognitive neuroscience

Cultural neuroscience is an emerging field of research that joins social and biological sciences to explore the influences of culture on brain development. While cultural psychology historically has relied on observational studies and survey methods, neuroscience measures such as ERPs and fMRI enable researchers to study the underlying neural mechanisms responsible for observed behavioral differences across cultures.

Cultural Neuroscience

The study of the physiological basis for cognition.

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

New York University

Grinnell College

California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Contributing fields to cognitive psychology

The scientific field of study of nervous system function and development. The human nervous system is comprised of the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral  (nerves and ganglia branching from brain and spinal cord) nervous systems. These are referred to as the CNS and PNS, respectively.

Neuroscience (Neurobiology)

- Biological Foundations of Behavior
- Evolution and Development of the Nervous System
- Perception and Action
- Regulation and Behavior
- Emotions and Mental Disorders
- Cognitive Neuroscience
- Scope and Outlook

Focuses of Behavioral Neuroscience

Biopsychology, also known as biological psychology, is a subfield of psychology that examines the influence of biological processes on behavior. It typically focuses on the immediate causes of behavior rooted in the physiology of an organism, with a primary emphasis on the nervous system's structure and function. This field is highly interdisciplinary, drawing on expertise from researchers with backgrounds in biology, medicine, physiology, and chemistry, and is considered a key component within the broader field of neuroscience.

Biopsychology (Biological Psychology)

Psychology is a diverse field composed of numerous major subdivisions, each offering a unique perspective on the study of mind and behavior. These disciplines represent the primary areas of research and practice, and include fields such as cognitive, developmental, personality, and biological psychology, as well as applied areas like clinical, health, and forensic psychology.

Psychological Disciplines

Goldstein, E. B. (2014). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience. Nelson Education.


Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience

Cognitive Neuroscience

COVID-19 patients have shown symptoms of direct and indirect neurological effects, from changes in taste and smell, to immunologic factors in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).  It is unknown whether these phenomena are the result of neurological damage, of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and/or of indirect effects of the immune response. Furthermore, studies in mice have shown that neurons are susceptible to infection, suggesting that cells of the CNS may contribute to the deteriorating breathing and respiratory function of COVID-19 patients. The image below is an early hypothesized mechanism of viral entry through nasal and oral mucosa cells, though there is not yet any evidence to support this hypothesis.

Effects of COVID-19 on the Central Nervous System

Even in the absence of typical respiratory symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath, various patients diagnosed with COVID-19 have presented neurological symptoms, such as:

- acute cerebrovascular diseases

- impaired consciousness

-  skeletal muscle injury

- encephalopathy (symptoms: ischemic stroke)

- loss of smell (anosmia) and taste (ageusia)

- stroke

- cranial nerve deficits

- delirium

- meningitis

- paralysis

- seizures

- neuroinflammatory syndromes

- high pressure CSF

- muscle stiffness

The list below includes less-common neurological symptoms of COVID-19:
- Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS)
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)

Neurological symptoms Presented in COVID-19 Patients

- Brain
- Neurons
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Neurological diseases
- Central nervous system (CNS)

Focuses of neuroscience (neurobiology) 

An intersection between psychology, neuroscience and economics that studies how brain activation corresponds with decisions of gains and losses.

Neuroeconomics

As the relapse prevention model discusses, many individuals recovering from addiction return to their behavior at some point during/after treatment. Researchers have begun to look at this idea of relapse and relapse prevention from a neuroscience perspective. This perspective could help further the understanding of why, on a brain level, individuals relapse and how we could possibly help. There is not a large consensus yet, but the research is looking at many factors including pathways, styles, and stages of recovery, as well as the possibility of reversing or diminishing the brain dysregulation that results from addiction.

Neuroscience approach to relapse and relapse prevention

The study of behavior, emotion, and cognition and how they relate to brain function

Neuropsychology

This looks at how behavior and the environment are affecting the neural development of humans through their lifetime.

Behavioral Neuroscience

Discipline that is concerned with hormonal development, its interaction with the nervous system, its secretion and associated physiological and behavioral effects.

Neuroendocrinology

A distinct line of inquiry with the goal of understanding which systems of the brain are activated during mindfulness practice to determine the effects that both short and long-term practice has on brain function and structure.

Neurobiology of Mindfulness

The study of Emotion Regulation within the lens of Neurobiology. More specifically, understanding what brain functions correspond to Emotion Regulation. 

The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation

A human's nervous system is in charge of managing our cognitions, movements, and responses. It is comprised of billions of neurons, glial cells, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. 

Nervous System

A person accidentally touches a hot surface and immediately withdraws their hand. Which of the following best analyzes the roles of the two major divisions of the nervous system in this reflex action?

- Viewpoints of the Biology of Behavior
- Approaches Relating Brain and Behavior
- The History of Research on the Brain and Behavior

Scope and Outlook of Behavioral Neuroscience

- Emotion, Aggression, Stress
- Psychopathology

Neuroscience of Emotions and Mental Disorders

- Evolutionary, Hormonal and Neural bases (sex)
- Homeostasis
- Biological Rhythms, Sleep, Dreaming

Biological Regulation and Behavior

- Evolution of the Brain and Behavior
- Life-Span Development of the Brain and Behavior

Evolution and Development of the Nervous System

- Sensory Processing, Touch, Pain
- Hearing, Vestibular Perception
- Taste
- Smell
- Vision
- Motor Control and Plasticity

Neuroscience of Perception and Action

The study of the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior, including its physiological and anatomical foundations, is fundamental to many areas of psychology. Key areas of study include functional neural anatomy, neurophysiology, neurotransmitters and neuropharmacology, and the role of hormones and the brain.

Biological Foundations of Behavior

The study of the neural mechanisms of behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments.

Physiological Psychology

The study of the effects of drugs on the brain and behavior.

Psychopharmacology 

The study of the relation between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects by noninvasive methods.

Psychophysiology

The study of the evolution, genetics, and adaptiveness of behavior, often by using the comparative approach.

Comparative Psychology 

Psycho-oncology is the study of physical/biological and social aspects of life with cancer. Its goal is to improve quality of life and to treat emotional and physical symptoms related to cancer treatment and lifestyle.  

Psycho-oncology 

Biopsychology involves the study of:
* Human Genetics
* Cells of the Nervous System
* Parts of the Nervous System
* The Brain and Spinal Cord
* The Endocrine System

Areas of Biopsychological Study

As per the biopsychosocial model, the biology, psychology, and social elements of a person interact, which influences that person's health.

Biopsychosocial Model

Biopsychological research is characterized by its interdisciplinary nature, frequently combining the research strategies of both psychologists and physiologists. This integrated approach is employed to investigate the relationship between the nervous system and behavior.

Interdisciplinary Research in Biopsychology

Biopsychology and evolutionary psychology differ in their primary focus. Biopsychology typically investigates the immediate, physiological causes of behavior within an organism. In contrast, evolutionary psychology seeks to understand the ultimate biological causes of behavior, examining how behaviors have evolved as adaptations over time.

Comparison between Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

A researcher is investigating why a person's heart rate increases and their palms sweat when they encounter a sudden, frightening stimulus. Which of the following research questions best represents a biopsychological approach to understanding this reaction?

Biological psychologists investigate a wide array of topics to understand the link between biology and behavior. Key areas of study include sensory and motor systems, sleep patterns, the effects of drug use and abuse, ingestive behaviors like eating and drinking, and reproductive behaviors. Research also extends to neurodevelopment, the plasticity of the nervous system, and the biological underpinnings of psychological disorders.

Domains of Biopsychological Research

An example of a topic studied in biological psychology is how cellular changes in the hippocampus—a brain structure critical for learning and memory—relate to memory formation. A researcher investigating these structural and biological mechanisms to understand how memories are created would most likely identify as a biological psychologist.

Example of Biological Psychology Research: Hippocampus and Memory

It examines psychology through the lens of evolution. How the human psyche has come to be through our "iterative development". Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection.

Evolutionary Psychology

Cognitive psychology is an area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to our experiences and actions. Like biological psychology, it is broad in scope and often involves interdisciplinary collaborations to study mental processes such as:  - attention - language - memory - perception - problem-solving - creativity - thought - decision-making - processing - knowledge - learning

It also includes the study of computer-based cognitive models such as connectionism (parallel distributed processing). Fields that draw from cognitive psychology include learning science and developmental psychology.

Cognitive Psychology

A branch of psychology dealing with the application of psychological principles and theories to a broad spectrum of teaching, training, and learning issues in educational settings. Educational psychology also addresses psychological problems that can arise in educational systems.

Educational Psychology

Personality psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the unique patterns of thoughts and behaviors that distinguish one individual from another. A central goal of this field is to understand and explain how an individual's personality develops over time.

Personality Psychology

Counseling psychology is a discipline that shares similarities with clinical psychology but primarily focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes for individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.

Counseling Psychology

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) psychology is a specialized subfield of psychology that applies psychological theories, principles, and research findings to industrial and organizational settings. Professionals in this field address issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and the workplace environment. Businesses often utilize I-O psychologists to improve hiring decisions and to design work environments that foster high levels of employee productivity and efficiency. In addition to its practical applications, I-O psychology also involves conducting scientific research on human behavior within these work-related contexts.

Industrial-organizational Psychology

Positive psychology is a field of research that was formally established in 1998 when Martin Seligman, then president of the American Psychological Association, called for a new focus on building human strength and psychological well-being. Often described as the 'science of happiness,' this area of study seeks to identify and promote the qualities that contribute to a more fulfilled life. It represents a significant shift from traditional psychology's emphasis on pathology, faults, and problems, instead concentrating on people's strengths and the factors that enable individuals to lead happy and contented lives.

Positive Psychology

Feminist psychology is a perspective that emerged to address and correct the historical male-dominated nature of the field. For much of its early history, psychology was a "womanless" science, meaning very few women could practice it or influence its research agenda. Furthermore, research subjects were predominantly men, leading to a skewed understanding of human behavior. Feminist psychology seeks to counteract these biases by actively including women's perspectives, scientifically studying gender, and re-examining the field to ensure a more equitable and accurate representation of all people.

Feminist Psychology

Cultural psychology is a sub-field that examines how culture influences individuals, groups, and society. It addresses the issue of research bias, where findings from over-studied populations have been improperly generalized to other groups. This field encompasses both multicultural approaches, which focus on diverse populations within a single country, and cross-cultural approaches, which compare populations across different countries.

Cultural Psychology

Forensic psychology is a specialized branch of psychology that addresses psychological questions as they emerge within the justice system. It involves the application of psychological principles and expertise to legal matters and proceedings.

Forensic Psychology

Psychopathology is a term with a dual meaning. It refers to the scientific study of psychological disorders, which includes investigating their symptoms, etiology (causes), and potential treatments. Concurrently, the term can also describe the manifestation of a psychological disorder itself, meaning the abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that indicate its presence.

Psychopathology

Health psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on how human health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors, utilizing an approach known as the biopsychosocial model. Professionals in this field aim to help individuals achieve better health through public policy, education, intervention, and research. Health psychologists often conduct research exploring the connections between a person's genetic makeup, psychological stress, behavioral patterns, relationships, and their overall health outcomes. They also investigate effective ways to motivate people to address behaviors that negatively impact their health.

Health Psychology

Occupational Health Psychology (OHP) is an interdisciplinary field that addresses the stress, diseases, and disorders affecting employees due to workplace factors. It examines how an organization influences an employee's quality of work life and the subsequent psychological and behavioral responses. These reactions can extend beyond the workplace into an employee's personal life, an effect known as work-life spillover, particularly when work-life balance is poor. The field is informed by a wide range of research from medicine, biology, psychology, organizational studies, human factors, human resources, and industrial psychology. Its primary goal is to improve the health and well-being of individual workers, which in turn enhances the overall health of the organization.

Occupational Health Psychology

Sport and exercise psychology is a field that studies the interactions between thoughts, emotions, and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities. It investigates the psychological dimensions of athletic performance, covering topics like motivation and performance anxiety, and also examines the impact of sports participation on mental and emotional well-being. The principles of this discipline extend beyond athletics to include demanding contexts such as firefighting, military operations, artistic performance, and surgery.

Sport and Exercise Psychology

Sensation and perception is an interdisciplinary field of psychology focused on how we receive and interpret sensory information to shape our conscious experience. It encompasses both the physiological aspects of how sensory systems work and the psychological experience of that information. Researchers in this domain study a wide array of sensory inputs—such as sights, sounds, smells, touch, temperature, and balance—and explore key topics like the distinction between sensation (detecting stimuli) and perception (interpreting data), the physical properties of stimuli, and the structure and function of sensory systems.

Sensation and Perception in Psychology

A field of psychology that is concerned with the acquisition and retention of information.

Learning and Memory in Psychology

- Health Psychology
- Buddhist Psychology

Interdisciplinary Areas in Psychology

Evolutionary psychology is a field that investigates the ultimate biological causes of behavior by focusing on how universal patterns of cognition and behavior have evolved over time. It operates on the principle that these genetically influenced patterns are adaptations to an organism's physical and social environment, shaped by their contribution to survival and reproductive success.

Emotion and Motivation Psychology is a field dedicated to understanding the interplay between our feelings and our actions. It examines various theories that explain why we engage in certain behaviors, exploring the drivers behind them. This includes investigating how fundamental physiological needs and our social experiences shape our motivations and subsequent actions.

Emotion and Motivation Psychology

Developmental psychology is the scientific field dedicated to studying development throughout an individual's entire life. While it includes the study of physical maturation, its scope is much broader than just the physical changes associated with aging. Developmental psychologists also investigate changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social behavior, and various other psychological attributes over the lifespan.

Developmental Psychology (Lifespan Development)

Which of the following psychological disciplines primarily focuses on the study of how people learn and the best practices for teaching?

Which psychological discipline is primarily concerned with the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving?

Which psychological discipline focuses on the study of how psychological factors influence physical health and illness?

Which psychological discipline is primarily concerned with the study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others?

Within the broader field of psychology, several subfields are classified as applied areas. These disciplines focus on using psychological principles and research to address practical, real-world problems. Key applied areas include industrial-organizational psychology, health psychology, sport and exercise psychology, forensic psychology, and clinical psychology.

Applied Areas of Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. A key focus is on how people conceptualize and interpret situations, and how these interpretations, along with other situational variables, interact to influence behavior within a social context. The field examines how people affect one another, emphasizing the power of the situation in shaping human actions, and explores all facets of personality and social interaction, particularly the influence of interpersonal and group relationships.

Social psychology

The clinical practice of psychology involves the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and related behavioral problems. This broad applied discipline encompasses professionals like clinical and counseling psychologists who help individuals and communities function better. A rigorous scientific approach is essential in clinical practice, as clinicians must rely on empirical research to accurately understand psychological problems and make evidence-based treatment decisions.

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