- Anterior Cingulate Cortex
- Insular Cortex
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Amygdala

Areas of the Brain Responsible for Mindfulness

Maladaptive emotion regulation occurs when the regulatory processes do not have the desired effect on emotion, or when the short-term gain of the regulatory effect (for example, to suppress anxiety) is outweighed by a long-term consequence of that regulation (for example, decreased quality of life). 

Maladaptive Emotion Regulation

Mindfulness practitioners show more activity in areas of the brain that support more momentary, experiential, self-focus (such as the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, the interior cortex, and the secondary somatosensory cortex). 

Brain Activity of Mindfulness Practitioners

The greater amount of grey matter within the right amygdala, the lesser activity and thus the greater cognitive control of stressful/fearful emotional responses. This is likely because the amygdala is inhibited by the Prefrontal Cortex at rest. Thus the result is greater top-down control of the emotions.

Mindfully Trained Right Amygdala

Labeling emotions seems to aid in the ability to detach from them. Having the ability to detach from negative emotions will help generate greater positive psychology. 

Emotional Awareness and Detachment

The study of Emotion Regulation within the lens of Neurobiology. More specifically, understanding what brain functions correspond to Emotion Regulation. 

University of Toledo

The collection of conscious or unconscious influences that an individual exerts on the generation, timing, experience, or expression of his/her emotion(s). 

Emotion Regulation

The scientific field of study of nervous system function and development. The human nervous system is comprised of the central (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral  (nerves and ganglia branching from brain and spinal cord) nervous systems. These are referred to as the CNS and PNS, respectively.

Neuroscience (Neurobiology)

Hathaway, W. R. (2021, June 11). Neuroanatomy, prefrontal cortex. StatPearls [Internet]. Retrieved October 28, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499919/. 

Neuroanatomy, Prefrontal Cortex

The training of mindfulness positively influences the development of emotion regulation. It has been proven that mindfulness training can reduce the distracting or detrimental effects of emotional interference on performance in cognitive tasks. Mindfulness techniques also proved to be positively correlated with competition optimism. 

Emotion Regulation Mindfulness Mechanism to Improve Performance in Sports

Opposite action is a common exercise in dialectical behavior therapy intended to improve emotional regulation in patients. It teaches patients to be able to identify how they are feeling and then act in the opposite way. For example, if a patient is feeling anti-social and wants to withdraw from their friends and family, encourage them to do the opposite and instead reach out and make plans with them.

Opposite Action Exercise

The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation

Masculinity influences emotion regulation in two major ways. One is through childhood socialization; the other is through cognitive and experiential factors of masculinity.

How does masculinity affect emotion regulation?

Add reference nodes for emotion regulation here.

References for Emotion Regulation

Affective labels was shown to have a positive effect on down-regulating emotions. Research has found that spider-fearful individuals experience reduced emotions of fear when they encounter spider pictures accompanied by affective labels, such as "fear," compared to those who only see spider images without any emotion labels.

The Role of Language in Emotion Regulation: Affective Labels

- Recognize the Emotion
- Understand why you feel the emotion
- Sleep 
- Balanced diet
- Moving your body 
- Reduce Caffeine intake 

Natural Ways to Regulate Emotions

* Covert emotion regulation strategies
  * Cognitive Reappraisal
  * Suppression
* Overt emotion regulation strategies 
  * Seeking advice 
  * Drinking alcohol

Types of Emotion Regulation Strategies

Coping refers to the conscious, deliberate, and purposeful regulation of emotions, especially in situations perceived as threatening or stressful.

Coping

Which of the following best describes emotion regulation?

Which of the following strategies is an example of emotion regulation?

Which of the following is a key component of emotion regulation?

Which of the following techniques is commonly used in emotion regulation?

COVID-19 patients have shown symptoms of direct and indirect neurological effects, from changes in taste and smell, to immunologic factors in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).  It is unknown whether these phenomena are the result of neurological damage, of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and/or of indirect effects of the immune response. Furthermore, studies in mice have shown that neurons are susceptible to infection, suggesting that cells of the CNS may contribute to the deteriorating breathing and respiratory function of COVID-19 patients. The image below is an early hypothesized mechanism of viral entry through nasal and oral mucosa cells, though there is not yet any evidence to support this hypothesis.

Effects of COVID-19 on the Central Nervous System

Even in the absence of typical respiratory symptoms such as fever, cough, and shortness of breath, various patients diagnosed with COVID-19 have presented neurological symptoms, such as:

- acute cerebrovascular diseases

- impaired consciousness

-  skeletal muscle injury

- encephalopathy (symptoms: ischemic stroke)

- loss of smell (anosmia) and taste (ageusia)

- stroke

- cranial nerve deficits

- delirium

- meningitis

- paralysis

- seizures

- neuroinflammatory syndromes

- high pressure CSF

- muscle stiffness

The list below includes less-common neurological symptoms of COVID-19:
- Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS)
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)

Neurological symptoms Presented in COVID-19 Patients

The study of the physiological basis for cognition.

Cognitive Neuroscience

- Brain
- Neurons
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Neurological diseases
- Central nervous system (CNS)

Focuses of neuroscience (neurobiology) 

An intersection between psychology, neuroscience and economics that studies how brain activation corresponds with decisions of gains and losses.

Neuroeconomics

As the relapse prevention model discusses, many individuals recovering from addiction return to their behavior at some point during/after treatment. Researchers have begun to look at this idea of relapse and relapse prevention from a neuroscience perspective. This perspective could help further the understanding of why, on a brain level, individuals relapse and how we could possibly help. There is not a large consensus yet, but the research is looking at many factors including pathways, styles, and stages of recovery, as well as the possibility of reversing or diminishing the brain dysregulation that results from addiction.

Neuroscience approach to relapse and relapse prevention

The study of behavior, emotion, and cognition and how they relate to brain function

Neuropsychology

This looks at how behavior and the environment are affecting the neural development of humans through their lifetime.

Behavioral Neuroscience

Discipline that is concerned with hormonal development, its interaction with the nervous system, its secretion and associated physiological and behavioral effects.

Neuroendocrinology

A distinct line of inquiry with the goal of understanding which systems of the brain are activated during mindfulness practice to determine the effects that both short and long-term practice has on brain function and structure.

Neurobiology of Mindfulness

Biopsychology, also known as biological psychology, is a subfield of psychology that examines the influence of biological processes on behavior. It typically focuses on the immediate causes of behavior rooted in the physiology of an organism, with a primary emphasis on the nervous system's structure and function. This field is highly interdisciplinary, drawing on expertise from researchers with backgrounds in biology, medicine, physiology, and chemistry, and is considered a key component within the broader field of neuroscience.

Biopsychology (Biological Psychology)

A human's nervous system is in charge of managing our cognitions, movements, and responses. It is comprised of billions of neurons, glial cells, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. 

Nervous System

A person accidentally touches a hot surface and immediately withdraws their hand. Which of the following best analyzes the roles of the two major divisions of the nervous system in this reflex action?

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