- Accommodation
- Support-seeking
- Social Isolation
- Self-reliance
- Problem-solving
- Helplessness
- Escape
- Opposition
- Submission

Categorization of Loneliness Coping Strategies Among University Students

- Meaning-making coping model
- Emotion-focused coping
- Problem-focused coping 
- Transactional model of stress and coping 
- Dual process model of loss 


Coping Models/Strategies

- Preventive Coping: coping with events far in the future such as age related milestones or expected functional losses
- Proactive Coping: coping that focuses on reducing the impact of events likely to occur - they are temporally removed from the stressor
- Anticipatory Coping: problem solving based methods that happen farther along the chain of coping when an event is imminent 
- Post - Impact Coping: can either be short term or long term; problem focused coping to resolve immediate impacts and cognitive coping to equip an individual for residual effects 

Temporal Aspects of Coping 

Coping flexibility is an individual's ability to cope in different ways, and change their method of coping (E.g. Reframing), towards various stimuli.

Coping Flexibility 

Maladaptive coping includes attack self, attack other, withdrawal, and avoidance. Adaptive coping focuses on restoring relationships. 

Coping with Shame

- Having a negative, past-oriented approach to coping can cause a person to be stuck 
- A positive, future-oriented approach gives an individual hope and shows them there are opportunities in the future that will improve their quality of life
- This positive approach has been linked to increased psychosocial outcomes in psychological and social QOL, perceived well-being, life satisfaction, and negatively linked to depression and anxiety

Coping and Adversity

Researchers have agreed that there are unhealthy and healthy ways of managing stress.

Ways of Coping with Stress

Ultimately, it is the individual's response to the high risk situation that affects whether or not they will relapse. For example, a person who uses effective coping skills, such as leaving the situation or positive self talk, is less likely to relapse than someone who does not use effective coping skills. A person who has coped successfully with a high-risk situation will experience a greater sense of self-efficacy, thereby decreasing their chance of relapse in the future.

Coping Skills and Relapse

- Seeking Connection
- Avoidance
- Support-seeking
- Cognitive Strategies
- Meaning-focused
- Distraction

Categorization of Loneliness Coping Strategies Among Young Adults in Deprived Boroughs

References for Coping

Coping refers to the conscious, deliberate, and purposeful regulation of emotions, especially in situations perceived as threatening or stressful.

Columbia University

New York University

Google

Sadness resulting from the lack of opportunity to socialize with colleagues, friends, or romantic partners.

Loneliness

The collection of conscious or unconscious influences that an individual exerts on the generation, timing, experience, or expression of his/her emotion(s). 

Emotion Regulation

* Cultural, religious, and individual backgrounds perspectives on death
* Grief
* Hospice care
* Palliative care
* Living wills or advance directives
* Death anxiety 
* Death phobia
* Near-death experiences
* Trauma and Loss
* Coping Mechanisms
* Understanding of Death in Different Developmental Stages

Death-Related Topics in Psychology

Compas, B. E., Jaser, S. S., Dunbar, J. P., Watson, K. H., Bettis, A. H., Gruhn, M. A., & Williams, E. K. (2014). Coping and emotion regulation from childhood to early adulthood: Points of convergence and divergence. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(2), 71-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12043

Coping and Emotion Regulation from Childhood to Early Adulthood: Points of Convergence and Divergence (Compas et al., 2014)

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Higher job autonomy is linked to lower levels of loneliness.

Job Autonomy and Loneliness

The effects of social support on loneliness will be more profound for more disciplined employees.

Social Support and Loneliness via Self-Discipline

- Emotional loneliness
- Social loneliness

Subtypes of Loneliness

References for Loneliness

- Unattractiveness
- Others' behaviors
- Social circumstances
- Psychological states
- Beliefs/Luck

Perceived Causes of Loneliness: 5 Clusters

1. Internal vs. external
2. Stable vs. unstable
3. Controllable vs. uncontrollable
4. Global vs. Specific 
5. Intentional vs. Unintentional

5 Dimensions of Perceived Loneliness Causes

Coping

The training of mindfulness positively influences the development of emotion regulation. It has been proven that mindfulness training can reduce the distracting or detrimental effects of emotional interference on performance in cognitive tasks. Mindfulness techniques also proved to be positively correlated with competition optimism. 

Emotion Regulation Mindfulness Mechanism to Improve Performance in Sports

Opposite action is a common exercise in dialectical behavior therapy intended to improve emotional regulation in patients. It teaches patients to be able to identify how they are feeling and then act in the opposite way. For example, if a patient is feeling anti-social and wants to withdraw from their friends and family, encourage them to do the opposite and instead reach out and make plans with them.

Opposite Action Exercise

The study of Emotion Regulation within the lens of Neurobiology. More specifically, understanding what brain functions correspond to Emotion Regulation. 

The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation

Masculinity influences emotion regulation in two major ways. One is through childhood socialization; the other is through cognitive and experiential factors of masculinity.

How does masculinity affect emotion regulation?

Add reference nodes for emotion regulation here.

References for Emotion Regulation

Affective labels was shown to have a positive effect on down-regulating emotions. Research has found that spider-fearful individuals experience reduced emotions of fear when they encounter spider pictures accompanied by affective labels, such as "fear," compared to those who only see spider images without any emotion labels.

The Role of Language in Emotion Regulation: Affective Labels

- Recognize the Emotion
- Understand why you feel the emotion
- Sleep 
- Balanced diet
- Moving your body 
- Reduce Caffeine intake 

Natural Ways to Regulate Emotions

* Covert emotion regulation strategies
  * Cognitive Reappraisal
  * Suppression
* Overt emotion regulation strategies 
  * Seeking advice 
  * Drinking alcohol

Types of Emotion Regulation Strategies

Which of the following best describes emotion regulation?

Which of the following strategies is an example of emotion regulation?

Which of the following is a key component of emotion regulation?

Which of the following techniques is commonly used in emotion regulation?

A legal document outlining an individual's preferences for future medical or mental health treatment. It may also include a health care proxy.

Living Will

A legal written document used as a tool that allows individuals to outline their preferences and instructions for future healthcare in case they become incapable of making decisions themselves. 

Advance Directive

Refers to the sorrow felt after a major loss, such as the death of a loved one. Severe grief can become life-threatening by weakening the immune system, leading to self-neglect, and causing suicidal thoughts.

Grief

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is a condition where an infant dies unexpectedly during sleep after ceasing to breathe. The highest risk is observed in infants under one year old, with a higher incidence in boys. Several risk factors are associated with SIDS, such as premature birth, exposure to smoke in the household, and hyperthermia (overheating). Additionally, studies suggest that infants who succumb to SIDS may have underlying differences in brain structure and function.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

The implementation of end-of-life directives, including living wills and Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) orders, along with the provision of hospice care, raises significant ethical, legal, and practical challenges. These issues often involve debates over patient autonomy, the potential for misinterpretation of a patient's wishes, conflicts between family members and healthcare providers, and the emotional burden placed on all parties involved.

Critiques of End-of-Life Directives and Care

How death is viewed is heavily influenced by one's cultural and personal background. Some cultures embrace death as a natural part of life. In contrast, the historical approach in the United States, until about 50 years ago, often involved dying in a hospital without being explicitly informed of one's terminal condition.

Cultural Perspectives on Death

Hospice care is a program designed to provide a dignified death for terminally ill individuals, focusing on pain management and comfort in a humane setting, often at home rather than in a hospital. The modern hospice movement was initiated by Cicely Saunders in England in 1967, and the first hospice in the United States was founded by Florence Wald in 1974. Currently, hospice care serves approximately 1.65 million Americans and their families, enabling many to spend their final days in a familiar environment.

Hospice Care

A psychologist who collaborated with the pioneers of hospice care and introduced the influential five-stage model of grief to explain the process of an individual accepting their own mortality.

Elizabeth Kübler-Ross

Death is the final event in the human lifespan, signifying the conclusion of an individual's life.

Death as the Endpoint of the Lifespan

The five-stage model of grief, developed by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, is a theoretical framework used to explain the psychological process individuals may experience when confronting death.

Learn Before

Related

Learn After