Serotonergic psychedelics have been shown to increase dendritic arborization, spinogenesis, and synaptogenesis, particularly in the prefrontal cortex. This seems to operate in a similar neural pathway to BDNF (TrkB and mTOR receptors), and it is mediated by the serotonin 2A receptors. This is one potential antidepressant  mechanism of psychedelic drugs.

Psychedelics and Neuroplasticity

The case of ABC reporter Bob Woodruff serves as a powerful example of recovery from severe trauma. After a bomb explosion in Iraq caused a traumatic brain injury, he experienced significant cognitive problems, including difficulties with memory and language. Through intensive cognitive and speech therapy, Woodruff was able to achieve a remarkable recovery of his functions.

Bob Woodruff's Recovery from Traumatic Brain Injury

Using the information from the case study, explain the biological principle that most likely accounts for the patient's significant recovery of function. Describe at least two specific changes at the neural level that could have facilitated this recovery.

Functional Recovery After Brain Injury

The nervous system's capacity to change and adapt is known as neuroplasticity. This adaptation can be triggered by various factors, such as personal experiences, normal developmental stages, or in response to damage or injury. The underlying mechanisms of neuroplasticity include the formation of new synapses, the elimination of unused ones, modifications in glial cells, and even the generation of new neurons. While the brain's plasticity is at its peak during early life, it retains a significant capacity for change and reorganization throughout adulthood.

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Columbia University

University of Pittsburgh

Tulane University

Plasticity is how the brain is able to learn and adapt to environments. It exists throughout a person's lifetime, though it tends to be more active in early development when the brain is still forming. Plasticity is one of the key concepts within behavioral neuroscience that affects nearly all systems of the brain and brain functions.

Plasticity

The spinal cord can be conceptualized as an extension of the brain. It serves as the primary pathway for communication, enabling the brain to influence and interact with the rest of the body and the external environment.

The Brain and the Spinal Cord

A human's nervous system is in charge of managing our cognitions, movements, and responses. It is comprised of billions of neurons, glial cells, and the central and peripheral nervous systems. 

Nervous System

Biological psychologists investigate a wide array of topics to understand the link between biology and behavior. Key areas of study include sensory and motor systems, sleep patterns, the effects of drug use and abuse, ingestive behaviors like eating and drinking, and reproductive behaviors. Research also extends to neurodevelopment, the plasticity of the nervous system, and the biological underpinnings of psychological disorders.

Domains of Biopsychological Research

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

Processes like up-regulation and down-regulation (see "Agonist" and "Antagonist") are evidence of the plasticity of receptors in the brain (i.e., the fact that each subtype of neurotransmitter receptor can vary in number and distribution in the brain). Receptor plasticity occurs during development and throughout adulthood. Therefore, a neuron's sensitivity to different transmitters can vary throughout the lifespan. 

Receptor Plasticity

Plasticity of the sensory cortex refers to a characteristic of the cortex, that the cortical maps can change with experience. This was demonstrated in an experiment by Merzenich and Jenkins (1993), where they surgically removed the middle finger of the monkey, then found later that the region of cortex that responded to each remaining, adjacent finger expanded.

Plasticity of the Sensory Cortex

Neuroplasticity

Infants have diverse hearing capbilities in early life. If that hearing ability isn't used, for example if they have damage or deformity in their ears, their ability to distinguish or interpret sounds disappears. 

Musicians show higher sensitivity and activation to musical notes, with bigger differences in brain imaging if the musician was trained from an early age.

Plasticity, auditory perception and auditory pathways

Studies utilizing Art Therapy  as part of a treatment for brain diseases or injuries can lead to promotion in brain plasticity

Mindfulness Based Art Therapy for Individuals with Traumatic Brain Injuries and other Brain Diseases

One example of culture’s influence on brain function involves the use of the abacus in East Asian cultures. Giyoo Hatano, a Japanese developmental psychologist, hypothesized that abacus users relied on a mental representation of an abacus to solve arithmetic problems. In an fMRI study, Japanese participants, all of whom were familiar with the abacus, demonstrated increased activation in the parietal lobe. The magnitude of activation was positively correlated with the difficulty of the arithmetic problem. By contrast, individuals with no abacus experience tend to engage brain regions associated with linguistic processing when tasked with arithmetic problems (i.e. Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area). These findings support Hatano’s theory and illustrate the influence of culture on neuroplasticity.

Cultural neuroscience and arithmetic processing

A significant example of cultural neuroplasticity involves the famous “taxi driver” study by Maguire et al. (2000). They used structural MRI to compare the brains of experienced London taxi drivers to controls who did not drive taxis. Taxi drivers had larger posterior hippocampi, but smaller anterior hippocampi, compared to controls. Posterior and anterior hippocampal volume was positively and negatively correlated, respectively, with time spent as a licensed taxi driver. These findings support the hypotheses that a) the posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial/navigational memory and b) environmental stimuli can essentially “reshape” the brain.

Cultural neuroscience and spatial navigation

A patient involved in a serious fall is conscious and alert. They can answer questions, track movement with their eyes, and feel a light touch on their cheeks. However, they are unable to move their legs and report no feeling below their waist. Based on this set of symptoms, which major component of the central nervous system is most likely damaged, and what is the reasoning for this conclusion?

Nervous System Injury Assessment

Psychologists who aim to study the human mind require a basic understanding of the two primary subdivisions of the nervous system:
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 

Parts of the Nervous System

Neurons are specialized cells located in the nervous system that send information between different parts of the body and the brain.

Neurons

The hypothalamus is a brain structure that regulates various homeostatic processes, including blood pressure, appetite, and body temperature. It serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system, and it controls the hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland. Furthermore, it is involved in regulating sexual behavior and motivation.

Hypothalamus

The nervous system is structurally divided into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Visual illustrations typically distinguish these two by depicting the brain and spinal cord for the CNS, and the extensive network of connecting nerves throughout the body for the PNS.

Two Major Subdivisions of the Nervous System

Imagine a person accidentally touches a hot pan. They instantly withdraw their hand. Which statement best breaks down how their nervous system coordinated this rapid, involuntary response?

Sensory information is the information that enters the brain- sight, touch, smell, tastes, and sound. Motor information exits the brain through movement. These two systems work hand-in-hand to produce an output from the body that matches the input.

Sensory and Motor Systems Research

Several bodily regulations occur during sleep that have an impact on psychological events in a person. 

Sleep Research

Drug use and abuse and addiction is a psychological mechanism that connects to several other fields in psychology. 

Drug Use and Abuse Research

Feeding and drinking, behaviors that involve ingesting a material into the body.

Ingestive Behavior 

All behavior associated with reproduction.

Reproductive Behavior

Read the following research scenario and identify at least two primary areas of investigation being explored. Justify your choices by connecting specific details from the scenario to the research areas you identify.

Analyzing a Biopsychological Research Scenario

The extensive scope of biological psychology necessitates an interdisciplinary approach, attracting researchers from diverse scientific fields. Professionals involved in this research commonly include biologists, medical experts, physiologists, and chemists, all contributing their unique expertise to the study of behavior's biological foundations.

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