The rostrolateral prefrontal cortex is involved in metacognition and introspection,  the evaluation of self-generation information, the processing of complex and abstract information, and the integration of multiple higher-order cognitive processes in service of a behavioral goal.

Rostrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (Brodmann's Area 10 / Frontopolar Cortex)

The orbitofrontal cortex is connected to primary sensory regions and the  limbic system, including the amygdala, striatum, and hypothalamus. The orbitofrontal cortex is essential for understanding the precise relationship between stimuli and motivational outcomes. It may generate more flexible assessments of stimuli and experience. The orbitofrontal cortex is also implicated in emotion regulation, specifically down-regulating and reappraising negative emotional states. This regulatory function may be part of a broader role for the orbitofrontal cortex in the self-monitoring and integration of cognitive and emotional cues in decision-making. 

Orbitofrontal Cortex

The case of Theona, a 62-year-old woman, illustrates the effects of a stroke on the right frontal lobe. The damage resulted in both motor and behavioral deficits. She experienced difficulty moving her left leg, demonstrating the right hemisphere's control over the body's left side. Additionally, damage to her prefrontal cortex led to a loss of impulse control, evidenced by behavioral changes like eating unpaid items in a store, which highlights the prefrontal cortex's role in judgment and reasoning.

Case Study of Theona: Stroke in the Right Frontal Lobe

A part of the frontal lobe that is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning and focuses on "in the moment" or rash behavior (decision-making, problem solving, and so on). This area is also responsible for the development of personality. The PFC has a handful of (not universally agreed upon) subdivisions:

- Dorsomedial
- Dorsolateral
- Ventromedial
- Ventrolateral
- Orbitofrontal

Google

University of Toledo

Columbia University

University of Texas at Austin

- Anterior Cingulate Cortex
- Insular Cortex
- Prefrontal Cortex
- Amygdala

Areas of the Brain Responsible for Mindfulness

Located at the front of the brain and extending back to the central sulcus. It receives signals from all senses in order to coordinate them. Also involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, language, and higher cognitive functions such as thinking, speech and problem solving.
It contains Broca's area, the Prefrontal Cortex, and the Motor Cortex.

Frontal Lobe

Contrary to the earlier belief that memory involves the entire brain, research following Lashley's work has demonstrated that memory functions are localized. Specific brain regions and even individual neurons play key roles in forming memories. The primary structures identified as crucial for memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex.

Key Brain Structures Involved in Memory

Wheeler, M., Arnkoff, D., & Glass, C. (2017). The Neuroscience of Mindfulness: How Mindfulness Alters the Brain and Facilitates Emotion Regulation. Mindfulness, 8(6), 1471-1487.

How Mindfulness Alters the Brain and Facilitates Emotion Regulation

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

https://commons.wikimedia.org

This is a repository of free electronic media.

Wikimedia Commons

The ACC is involved in emotion-related learning, autonomic regulation, and emotion assessment. In other words, it helps in establishing: empathy, emotion, decision making, and impulse. 

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

The IC relates emotion to physiological experiences. In other words, it helps the conscious brain ascribe specific bodily states to certain emotions. Such as a hug to pleasure and/or comfort. 

Insular Cortex (IC)

The amygdala is a key brain structure that plays a central role in processing and relaying emotional information, making it a major focus of research into the biological basis of emotions like fear and anxiety. It is composed of various subnuclei and has a crucial role in memory, influencing how memories are stored—a process affected by stress hormones—and is involved in memory consolidation, the transfer of new learning into long-term memory. This is facilitated by enabling a deeper level of memory encoding for emotionally arousing events.

Amygdala

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

Contained in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe of the brain and specialized in producing speech. People with damage to Broca's area can't speak fluently.

Broca's Area

The left hemisphere deals with working memory, concentration, executive planning, and positive emotions. 

Left Hemisphere of Frontal Lobe

The right hemisphere of the frontal lobe is involved in several cognitive functions, including episodic memory, social awareness, and the retrieval of information. It also contains the primary motor centers that control voluntary movement on the left side of the body, meaning damage to this area can lead to motor impairment on the contralateral side.

Right Hemisphere of Frontal Lobe

The following areas of brain lobes can be considered when implementing neurofeedback:

- Parietal lobes
- Frontal lobes
- Temporal lobes
- Occipital lobes
- Sensorimotor cortex
- Cingulate gyrus
- Broca's area
- Left hemisphere
- Right hemisphere

Brain Lobe Considerations When Using Neurofeedback

The motor cortex is the part of the frontal lobe which is involved in planning and coordinating movement.

Motor Cortex

Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old railroad foreman in 1848, is one of the most renowned cases in neuroscience. He suffered a severe brain injury when an explosion drove a tamping iron through his face and skull, damaging his frontal lobe. Miraculously, Gage survived the accident, remaining conscious and able to walk and speak immediately after. However, in the following months, he underwent a profound personality transformation. Previously known as a well-mannered man, he began to exhibit strange and inappropriate behavior. This shift in personality is attributed to a loss of impulse control, a key function managed by the frontal lobe.

Phineas Gage

The hippocampus, a structure within the temporal lobes, is central to learning and memory. It is essential for consolidating new information into long-term memory, a process that involves transferring new learning for permanent storage. Research has shown its specific involvement in normal recognition memory and spatial memory, as demonstrated in studies where rats with hippocampal lesions showed impairment in tasks like object recognition and maze running. Furthermore, the hippocampus projects information to cortical regions, which helps to give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. It is also critical for contextualized emotional learning. The famous case of patient H.M., who could not form new memories after his hippocampus was removed, provided significant evidence for its role.

Hippocampus

The cerebellum, a hindbrain structure known as the 'little brain,' governs balance, coordination, and motor skills. It also plays a critical role in processing and storing implicit memories. This includes procedural memory for tasks, motor learning, and classical conditioning. Consequently, damage to the cerebellum can impair the ability to learn conditioned responses.

Cerebellum

The dentate gyrus is a structure within the hippocampus that aids in the processing of memory.

The Dentate Gyrus

The entorhinal cortex acts similarly to a gateway in the brain, allowing information to enter and exit the memory processing area of the brain, the hippocampus.

Entorhinal Cortex

Neurons are specialized cells located in the nervous system that send information between different parts of the body and the brain.

Neurons

Several key neurotransmitters, including epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine, are understood to be involved in memory processes. While the precise function of each neurotransmitter is still a subject of ongoing research and debate, it is established that the communication between neurons facilitated by these chemicals is fundamental for the formation of new memories.

Role of Neurotransmitters in Memory

The cerebellum's primary function in memory is the processing of procedural memories, which are the memories for skills and routine actions.

Role of the Cerebellum in Memory

The hippocampus serves a critical function in memory as the primary site where new memories are encoded.

Role of the Hippocampus in Memory

The amygdala influences memory by helping to determine which pieces of information are stored as memories. This process is guided by the strength of the emotional response associated with an event.

Role of the Amygdala in Memory

A patient is involved in a car accident and sustains a localized brain injury. After the accident, they are unable to form new long-term memories of events or facts, such as what they ate for breakfast or the name of their new doctor. However, they can still recall memories from their childhood and can learn new physical skills, like a new dance routine, with practice. Their emotional responses to events seem normal. Based on this information, which brain structure is most likely to have been damaged, and why?

Learn Before

Related

Learn After