The left hemisphere of the frontal lobe is associated with the following conditions:
- Depression 

Left Frontal Lobe Associated Conditions

The left hemisphere deals with working memory, concentration, executive planning, and positive emotions. 

New Mexico Highlands University

Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning, learning and comprehension. Some of the manipulation of information takes place in working memory

Working Memory

Executive function refers to functions such as planning, working memory, impulse control, inhibition, and mental flexibility. Traditionally, these functions have been tied to the frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex. Many signs of autism that are observed are related to disrupted executive function, causing repeated behaviors and rigid schedules among other behaviors. Executive Dysfunction seems to be a product of differences in the frontal lobe, caused by injury or neurodevelopmental disorders. It can also contribute to difficulties with emotional/behavioral regulation.

Executive Dysfunction

Located at the front of the brain and extending back to the central sulcus. It receives signals from all senses in order to coordinate them. Also involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, language, and higher cognitive functions such as thinking, speech and problem solving.
It contains Broca's area, the Prefrontal Cortex, and the Motor Cortex.

Frontal Lobe

Marzbani, H., Marateb, H. R., & Mansourian, M. (2016). Neurofeedback: A comprehensive review on system design, methodology and clinical applications. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, 7(2), 143–158. https://doi-org.proxy.wichita.edu/10.15412/J.BCN.03070208

Neurofeedback: A comprehensive review on system design, methodology and clinical applications

- The phonological loop
- Visuospatial sketch pad
- The central executive 
- Episodic buffer

Parts of working memory (Baddeley's model)

A curve that displays how well respondents recall words depending on how long ago they were displayed.

Serial position curve 

Taking information from long term memory and transferring it to working memory.

Retrieval

In order to increase effectiveness, cognitive load theory should be considered during instructional design for online learning including MOOCs. Cognitive load refers to the amount of working memory an individual is using while learning information. Intrinsic cognitive load is the natural complexity of the material that is being learned. Extrinsic load is complexity of learning caused by ineffective instructional design. The goal of cognitive load theory is to reduce extrinsic load experienced by students. 

Cognitive Load Theory

The process of acquiring information and sending it to long term memory (WM to LTM).

Encoding

Working memory capacity is a psychological characteristic that refers to an individual's ability to simultaneously hold and process multiple pieces of information in their mind. In cognitive psychology, this capacity can be quantified using systematic measurement procedures.

Working Memory Capacity

There is converging functional neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the sustained activity in the prefrontal cortex underlying the process of working memory during the delay period in a working memory task. And due to the fact that the PFC has a lot of cortico-cortico connections and coritco-subcortico connections, it might be the case that these different connections probably mediate different component processes of working memory. It has been believed for example the the cortical network might mediate the maintenance of goals, while the subcortical networks mediates response selection and motor control

The Neural Basis of Working Memory

Neuromodulatory brainstem projections affects our working memory cognition

Working Memory & Neuromodulatory Systems

Left Hemisphere of Frontal Lobe

Hill, E. L. (2004). Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Developmental Review, 24(2), 189–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2004.01.001 

Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism

Demetriou, E. A., DeMayo, M. M., & Guastella, A. J. (2019). Executive Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder: History, Theoretical Models, Empirical Findings, and Potential as an Endophenotype. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00753

Executive Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder: History, Theoretical Models, Empirical Findings, and Potential as an Endophenotype

Planning is a complex and dynamic operation that involves constant monitoring, re-evaluating, and updating, which in turn requires the ability to predict abstract outcomes, assess the current situation accurately, make a choice, and implement a plan properly. Planning deficits have been observed in individuals with ASD, as they have trouble with planning tasks like the Tower of Hanoi/Tower of London.
However, this deficit was not present in all ASD individuals, and was not seen much in easy puzzles, suggesting an ASD problem in complex planning, not just any kind of planning. This deficit may be more related to a learning disability, but it's unclear.

Planning Deficits in ASD

Otherwise known as set-shifting, this refers to the ability to shift to a different thought or action as context shifts. Poor mental flexibility is demonstrated in the inability to change course of thought and action and perseveration- one of the major symptoms of autism spectrum disorder. ASD individuals, for instance, struggle with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. 
However, performance is not poor for ASD individuals across the board, seeming to be affected by age, IQ, gender, and ethnic origin. Performance may be highly related to verbal IQ, and errors may not all be perseverative in nature. Some errors may just be random errors. 

Mental Flexibility in Autism

Executive functioning is thought to be centralized in the frontal lobes. Individuals with frontal lobe damage do, in fact, show deficits often seen in ASD, which is where the theory of executive dysfunction in ASD came from. Indeed, there are reported structural abnormalities in the frontal cortices of ASD individuals, but results are inconclusive because results vary by individual. Generally, delayed postnatal maturation of the prefrontal cortex has been reported. However, it is important to keep in mind that developmental and acquired disorders are inherently different and cannot be compared totally equally. Similarly, results are inconclusive about how much of ASD symptoms are related to prefrontal cortex abnormalities. Though there is a potential that these abnormalities are probably a factor, it is unclear if these abnormalities are the root of ASD. 

Autism and the Frontal Lobes in Executive Dysfunction

There is a general lack of consensus as to which executive functioning aspects are problematic in ASD specifically. Symptoms overlap with other disorders, so the source isn’t clear. It cannot be proven if executive dysfunction is the root of ASD symptoms as opposed to a symptom in itself. These difficulties are also not entirely universal, appearing to be affected by IQ and age, with some executive functions more difficult to others. Measurements are imperfect and may be affected by other factors. Perhaps its greatest potential is as an endophenotype. 

Problems With the Executive Dysfunction Hypothesis of ASD

Some relevant psychiatric and developmental populations that struggle with executive dysfunction are the following:
- ADHD
- depression
- anxiety
- schizophrenia
- ASD

Populations affected by Executive Dysfunction

Issues with emotional regulation, aka Emotional Dysregulation (ED), are not diagnostic factors when evaluating people for autism, however many people with ASD struggle with emotional regulation which can manifest in behavioral or social difficulties due to difficulty or inability to apply adaptive emotion regulation strategies

Emotional Regulation and ASD

Contained in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe of the brain and specialized in producing speech. People with damage to Broca's area can't speak fluently.

Broca's Area

A part of the frontal lobe that is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning and focuses on "in the moment" or rash behavior (decision-making, problem solving, and so on). This area is also responsible for the development of personality. The PFC has a handful of (not universally agreed upon) subdivisions:

- Dorsomedial
- Dorsolateral
- Ventromedial
- Ventrolateral
- Orbitofrontal

Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)

The right hemisphere of the frontal lobe is involved in several cognitive functions, including episodic memory, social awareness, and the retrieval of information. It also contains the primary motor centers that control voluntary movement on the left side of the body, meaning damage to this area can lead to motor impairment on the contralateral side.

Right Hemisphere of Frontal Lobe

The following areas of brain lobes can be considered when implementing neurofeedback:

- Parietal lobes
- Frontal lobes
- Temporal lobes
- Occipital lobes
- Sensorimotor cortex
- Cingulate gyrus
- Broca's area
- Left hemisphere
- Right hemisphere

Brain Lobe Considerations When Using Neurofeedback

The motor cortex is the part of the frontal lobe which is involved in planning and coordinating movement.

Motor Cortex

Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old railroad foreman in 1848, is one of the most renowned cases in neuroscience. He suffered a severe brain injury when an explosion drove a tamping iron through his face and skull, damaging his frontal lobe. Miraculously, Gage survived the accident, remaining conscious and able to walk and speak immediately after. However, in the following months, he underwent a profound personality transformation. Previously known as a well-mannered man, he began to exhibit strange and inappropriate behavior. This shift in personality is attributed to a loss of impulse control, a key function managed by the frontal lobe.

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