China's Economic Decline Under Foreign Dominance Without Formal Colonization
Despite never being formally colonized, China experienced a decline in per capita income from the early 19th to the mid-20th century due to foreign intervention. European powers, including Britain and Portugal, controlled key ports like Hong Kong and Macau, which prevented the Chinese government from exercising economic sovereignty. This period of foreign control and economic stagnation ended in the mid-20th century following a revolution.
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