- Chronic stress, from events like COVID-19, causes damage to the circuits in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus
   - Includes the breakdown do dendrites impairing neuron action
      - Dendrites are responsible for received signals
   - Damage to the hippocampus impairs memory
   - The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher order thinking

Physiological Impact of Chronic Stress from COVID-19

The release of glucocorticoids, following the body's stress response, bind to receptors in the hippocampus (associated with memory functioning). Extended release of this hormone, brought upon by chronic stress, can compromise the structure of this hippocampus region.

Effect of Chronic Stress on Memory

Socioeconomic Status (SES) can be used to predict the likelihood that an individual will develop chronic stress. This is because individuals adverse economic experiences often result in repeated encounters with stress.

Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and Chronic Stress

Response to prolonged periods of psychological stress (that can lead to poor mental health) involving the endocrine system and its release of corticosteroids, which increases over time as a result of this.

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Chronic and Acute Stress

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis is a crucial neuroendocrine system that orchestrates the body's response to stress. While highly active during a stress response, its hormonal cascade operates more slowly than the immediate reaction of the sympathetic nervous system. The process begins when the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), which signals the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH then travels to the adrenal glands, stimulating them to release hormones like cortisol into the bloodstream. This hormonal sequence ultimately provides the body with the energy needed to manage the stressor.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis

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Acute Stress

Chronic Stress is the result in an Overactivation of the HPA-axis

- Higher urinary cortisol levels have been found in BPD patients compared to controls.
- When BPD patients were divided according to the presence of high or low number of PTSD symptoms, high cortisol levels were found only in BPD patients with a low number of PTSD symptoms.
- Found an exaggerated ACTH and cortisol response during the DEX/CRH test in the blood of BPD female subjects who had experienced childhood abuse.

HPA Axis in BPD

Comfort eating is eating as a way to soothe negative emotions. Research showed that eating sweet high-fat food can blunt the activity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), a neuroendocrine system that in humans has been shown to regulate psychological processes, including negative emotions.

Comfort Eating(Emotional Eating)

Cortisol is a stress hormone. During the beginning of an exposure to a stressor, it provides the body with energy. However, long periods of exposure to stressors leads to sustained levels of cortisol, which in turn weakens the immune system.

Cortisol Hormone

A Stressful Interaction Causes the Release of Cortisol by the...?

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis is visually represented by showing the locations of its key components within the human body. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are located within the brain, while the adrenal glands are situated on top of the kidneys. Arrows are used to depict the flow of hormonal signals, starting from the hypothalamus, moving to the pituitary gland, and finally reaching the adrenal glands.

Anatomical Representation of the HPA Axis

Research has long indicated that individuals with depression often exhibit abnormal levels of cortisol, a key stress hormone released by the neuroendocrine system during the body's fight-or-flight response. Elevated cortisol is particularly prevalent in depressed individuals who have experienced early life trauma, such as childhood abuse or the loss of a parent.

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