Habits form by repeating behaviors or actions after certain contextual cues. In repeating these actions, dependence on conscious motivation for performing the actions is reduced. The consistent repetition of actions over the period of 60+ days forms habits.

Formation of Habits

Stimulus generalization occurs when an organism elicits a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus. This process is the opposite of stimulus discrimination. The likelihood of the conditioned response appearing is proportional to the similarity between the new stimulus and the conditioned stimulus; the more alike they are, the stronger the response.

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus discrimination is a learning process where an organism learns to respond differently to various similar stimuli. In the context of classical conditioning, this means the organism exhibits the conditioned response only to the specific conditioned stimulus, not to other stimuli that may be similar but do not signal the unconditioned stimulus. This ability to distinguish between predictive and non-predictive stimuli is crucial for appropriate responses, such as recognizing sounds that signal a threat versus those that do not.

Stimulus Discrimination

Higher-order conditioning, also known as second-order conditioning, occurs when an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a new, neutral stimulus. In this process, the original conditioned stimulus effectively acts like an unconditioned stimulus for the new association. However, achieving conditioning beyond this second level is generally difficult, and the learned response is often weaker.

Higher-Order Conditioning (Second-Order Conditioning)

- Unconditioned stimulus (US): stimulus that produces an automatic response without prior conditioning


- Unconditioned response (UR): unconditioned reaction automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus


- Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning


- Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previous NS that elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the US


- Conditioned response (CR): the learned response to the conditioned stimulus after the CS and US are paired


(Spielman 2020)

Classical Conditioning: Terms

Classical conditioning involves several key processes that describe how a conditioned response is learned and modified:

*   **Acquisition**: The initial stage of learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.
*   **Extinction**: The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
*   **Spontaneous Recovery**: The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.
*   **Stimulus Generalization**: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a similar conditioned response.
*   **Stimulus Discrimination**: The ability to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Key Processes in Classical Conditioning

In a 1920 study at Johns Hopkins University, John B. Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner aimed to demonstrate that fear could be conditioned in humans. Their subject, a baby known as Little Albert, was initially unafraid of a white rat. The conditioning process involved pairing the sight of the rat with a loud, frightening noise created by striking a steel bar. After repeated pairings, Albert began to fear the rat alone. The experiment also demonstrated stimulus generalization, as Albert's fear extended to other furry objects. The findings from this experiment suggest that classical conditioning can serve as an explanation for the development of some fears.

The Little Albert Experiment

The principles of classical conditioning are applied in various domains to understand and influence behavior. Key areas of application include explaining learned emotional responses like fear, developing therapies for anxiety disorders, and creating positive associations in advertising to promote products. It also provides a framework for understanding aspects of language acquisition, as explored in Relational Frame Theory (RFT).

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves pairing one stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus, which causes a change in response to a neutral stimulus.

University of Chicago

Trinity College (CT)

Michigan State University

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

- Classical conditioning
- Operant conditioning

Types of conditioning

Behavior therapy is a therapeutic approach that applies principles of learning to help clients change undesirable behaviors, without focusing on the unconscious mind. It operates on the belief that dysfunctional behaviors, such as phobias or bedwetting, can be resolved by teaching clients new, more constructive behaviors. This therapy utilizes both classical and operant conditioning techniques to facilitate this change.

Behavior Therapy

Phobias are thought to be acquired through 3 major learning pathways:
- Classical conditioning
- Vicarious learning
- Verbal transmission

Acquisition of Phobias

Associative learning is a learning principle wherein connections are formed between events that happen together. The two main types of this learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, both of which involve making associations between environmental occurrences.

Associative Learning

Goldstein, E. B. (2014). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience. Nelson Education.


Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research and everyday experience

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Classical Conditioning

B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, which expands on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, posits that voluntary behaviors are learned through their consequences. Skinner's research, often involving rats and pigeons in operant conditioning chambers, focused on how reinforcement and punishment alter the probability of a behavior's recurrence. Beyond his laboratory work, Skinner was a strong advocate for applying operant conditioning principles in educational settings to shape students' behavior and improve learning outcomes.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

Creative Arts Therapy uses many different kinds of creative bodies such as arts, craft, dance, music drama, and writing when treating mental disorders.

Creative Arts Therapy

* Classical conditioning therapeutic technique
  * Counterconditioning
    * Aversive conditioning 
    * Exposure therapy
        * Systematic desensitization
        * Virtual reality exposure therapy
* Operant conditioning intervention
  * Token economy

Types of Behavior Therapy Techniques

Psychoanalysis and behavior therapy differ fundamentally in their focus and methods. Psychoanalysis delves into a patient's past and unconscious to uncover repressed feelings that are believed to be the root of their problems. In contrast, behavior therapy concentrates on current, observable behaviors and applies principles of learning to replace undesirable actions with more constructive ones.

Comparison of Psychoanalysis and Behavior Therapy

Based on the provided case study, propose a therapeutic strategy that aligns with the core principles of behavior therapy. Explain why your proposed strategy is a suitable example of this approach.

Therapeutic Approach for a Specific Phobia

A client comes to therapy with a debilitating fear of public speaking. They avoid all situations that might require them to speak in front of a group, which is now threatening their job performance. A therapist who operates on the principle that problematic behaviors are learned and can be changed by teaching new, more constructive behaviors would most likely recommend which course of action?

A child develops a severe fear of dogs after their parents repeatedly tell them detailed, frightening stories about people being attacked by dogs. The child has never had a negative personal encounter with a dog. Based on the primary pathways through which fears can be learned, identify the most likely pathway for the child's fear acquisition and explain your reasoning.

Identifying the Source of a Phobia

Operant conditioning is a form of associative learning in which the motivation for a behavior occurs after the behavior is demonstrated. An organism learns to associate a voluntary action with its subsequent consequence, which can be either a reinforcer or a punisher. This consequence then modifies the likelihood of the behavior being repeated in the future.

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