Clive Wearing, a skilled musician, developed a severe memory disorder at age 46. This condition left him unable to form new memories, such as recalling what he ate for breakfast an hour earlier. However, his procedural memory remained intact, allowing him to play the piano flawlessly, illustrating a clear distinction between different memory systems.

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* Henry Molaison (H.M.)
* Kent Cochrane (K.C.)
* Scott Bolzan
* Clive Wearing

Influential Case Studies in Amnesia

The hippocampus, a structure within the temporal lobes, is central to learning and memory. It is essential for consolidating new information into long-term memory, a process that involves transferring new learning for permanent storage. Research has shown its specific involvement in normal recognition memory and spatial memory, as demonstrated in studies where rats with hippocampal lesions showed impairment in tasks like object recognition and maze running. Furthermore, the hippocampus projects information to cortical regions, which helps to give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. It is also critical for contextualized emotional learning. The famous case of patient H.M., who could not form new memories after his hippocampus was removed, provided significant evidence for its role.

Hippocampus

* Phineas Gage 
* Henry Molaison (H.M.)
* John Nash
* Clive Wearing
* James Wannerton

Influential Case Studies in Brain Function and Behavior

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Kent Cochrane, known as patient K.C., was studied for years by Endel Tulving after a motorcycle accident caused a traumatic head injury and severe amnesia. K.C.'s case was remarkable for his complete episodic amnesia, meaning he was unable to recall any personal life events from his entire life, from birth to the present. However, his memory for experiences within the most recent one to two minutes remained functional.

Kent Cochrane (K.C.)

After a severe concussion, the former NFL player became one of the most extreme cases of retrograde amnesia. After the injury, Scott was unable to remember 46 years of his life.

Scott Bolzan

Henry Molaison (H.M.) is a landmark case study in neuroscience whose surgery for severe seizures involved removing his hippocampi. This resulted in severe anterograde amnesia, profoundly impairing his declarative memory. While his pre-surgery memories and ability to learn new procedural skills were preserved, he could not form new explicit memories. For instance, he would read the same magazine repeatedly without any recollection of having seen it before and could not remember people he met just minutes earlier. Despite this, his procedural memory remained functional, as shown by his improving speed at solving a puzzle over several days, even though he never consciously remembered performing the task before. H.M.'s case was pivotal in demonstrating the hippocampus's crucial role in forming new long-term memories.

Case Study of Henry Molaison (H.M.)

Case Study of Clive Wearing

Analyze the following case study. Based on the patient's abilities and inabilities, what can be concluded about the state of their different long-term memory systems?

Analysis of Memory Impairment

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548359/#:~:text=Hippocampus%20is%20a%20complex%20brain,of%20neurological%20and%20psychiatric%20disorders.

NCBI: Hippocampus in Health and Disease 

Meditation training may enhance stress resilience via hippocampal structure alterations. This notion comes from the idea that hippocampal atrophy is associated with clinical disorders that involve stress, anxiety, and depression. These clinical disorders may also be associated with problems of concentration and memory. Thus, structural increase in the hippocampus relate to meditation's potential betterment of these clinical conditions.  There may also be structural differences in the hippocampus because of memory reconsolidation.  Many meditative practices place a strong emphasis on re-evaluating past behavioral patterns and default emotional reactions to events. 
The differences in the hippocampus may be due to the region playing a role in seeing past experiences in a new light and allowing for greater flexibility in present behavior.  Structural differences in the hippocampus may be related to the effort involved in re-contextualizing spontaneous thought processes, memories, and simulations during meditation practice.

Hippocampus in meditation

This has a frequency of 3.5 to 7.5 hz and relates to slow activity. It connects to creativity, daydreaming, memory, emotion, sensation, reflection, meditation, and spiritual awareness. It’s the state that lies between being awake and asleep. Theta activity is abnormal in awake adults, but normal in children up to age 13. It reflects activity from the limbic system and hippocampus. If it works properly it can aid in learning.

EEG Theta

Long-term potentiation has been most commonly studied in the hippocampus, more specifically in the Schaffer collateral axons of the ca3 neurons and the ca1 pyramidal cells.

Long-term Potentiation in Hippocampus

In an experiment to understand the hippocampus's function, researchers created lesions in the hippocampi of rats. These rats subsequently showed impaired memory in various tasks, including object recognition and navigating mazes. The results indicated that the hippocampus is vital for normal recognition memory and spatial memory.

Example of Hippocampus's Role in Memory: Rat Lesion Experiment

The hippocampus plays a crucial role in organizing memories by projecting information to various cortical regions. This process is essential for giving memories their meaning and for establishing connections between different, related memories.

Hippocampus's Role in Connecting and Contextualizing Memories

Injury to the hippocampus, a structure located within the temporal lobes, prevents the processing of new declarative memories. This means that an individual with such damage loses the ability to form new long-term memories for facts and events, a condition exemplified by the famous case of patient H.M.

Effect of Hippocampal Injury on Declarative Memory

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new long-term memories following an event like brain trauma, while memories from before the injury remain intact. This condition, often linked to hippocampal damage, disrupts the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory. A key characteristic of this amnesia is the differential impact on memory systems: individuals are typically unable to form new episodic (events) or semantic (facts) memories, but they often retain the ability to form new procedural memories (skills).

Anterograde Amnesia

Based on the specific pattern of preserved and impaired abilities described in the case study, which brain structure is most likely damaged? Justify your answer by explaining the distinction between the types of memory demonstrated by the patient.

Analysis of Memory Deficits

Phineas Gage, a 25-year-old railroad foreman in 1848, is one of the most renowned cases in neuroscience. He suffered a severe brain injury when an explosion drove a tamping iron through his face and skull, damaging his frontal lobe. Miraculously, Gage survived the accident, remaining conscious and able to walk and speak immediately after. However, in the following months, he underwent a profound personality transformation. Previously known as a well-mannered man, he began to exhibit strange and inappropriate behavior. This shift in personality is attributed to a loss of impulse control, a key function managed by the frontal lobe.

Phineas Gage

John Nash, a brilliant mathematician and Nobel Prize winner, provides a significant case study in schizophrenia. While a professor at MIT, he developed severe symptoms, including delusions that coded messages from extraterrestrials were being sent to him via the New York Times. He also experienced auditory hallucinations and became deeply suspicious of people around him, leading to his diagnosis and hospitalization.

Case Study of John Nash

An individual who provides a clear example of synesthesia, a condition where sensory pathways are cross-wired. For him, hearing specific words triggers an associated taste sensation; for instance, the name of his former girlfriend tastes like rhubarb.

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