Intersectionality examines the experiences of people who are experiencing discrimination on the basis of two or more marginalized identities at the same time, and how this differs from experiencing discrimnination on the basis of these identities individually.  Because of this depending on context, we all have areas where we experience privilege, as well as areas of oppression

For example, the stereotypes or preconceived notions held about black women are not merely a combination of those held about black people and those held about women, but a unique intersection of racism and sexism that black women experience differently from either black men or white women.

Intersectionality

- binary approach (disabled versus able-bodied)
- essentialist (focused primarily on ability status)

Current Pitfalls in the Methodology Used in Disability Studies Research

- inclusive
- reflexive
- anti-essentialist

Research Qualities that Consider Intersectional factors 

In this article, Strand discusses how Intersectionality Theory and the Neurodiversity Paradigm have been conceptualized, utilized, and operationalized - understanding how a theoretical concept is applied in context. Through this study, Strand poses that intersectionality theory and the neurodiversity paradigm can work to strengthen the theoretical aims and application of each other. 

Charting Relations between Intersectionality Theory and the Neurodiversity Paradigm

A major critique of the current disability studies discipline relates to its essentialist and binary approach to understanding disability and the subjective disability experience. 

Arizona State University

The differences in norms, lifestyles, and social identities, propagated among disabled individuals. It often forms as a reaction toward past and present attitudes towards disabled communities. It promotes connection, camaraderie, and a shared purpose among those in the community. It also includes a motivation for people with disabilities to address their own civil, social, political, and economic needs

Disability Culture

This theory examines and critiques societies and cultures and looks at social issues and structures that lead to inequality. It identifies the people who can suppress this inequality and outlines the steps needed to reach human liberation. 

Critical Theory

The evolution of how every topic regarding disabilities has changed over time throughout the world.

History of Disability Studies

Tina Goethals, Elisabeth De Schauwer, & Geert Van Hove. (2015). Weaving Intersectionality into Disability Studies Research: Inclusion, Reflexivity and Anti-Essentialism. DiGeSt. Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies, 2(1–2), 75–94. https://doi.org/10.11116/jdivegendstud.2.1-2.0075


Weaving Intersectionality into Disability Studies Research: Inclusion, Reflexivity and Anti-Essentialism

The degree to which an individual culture, be it national, religious, class, education level, or otherwise, has a positive or negative (inclusive or exclusive) response to disabled individuals within their culture. 

Public Attitude Toward Disability

The language and terminology that those within a certain disability group generally prefer. For example, many Deaf individuals prefer to be called "Deaf" or "hard of hearing" rather than "hearing impaired" or "a person who is deaf"

Disability Language

Captioning is the process of displaying text while a video is being played. Typically, the text will be a transcription of the video's audio, noting who is speaking along with sound effects and important musical cues. This helps to make films, television shows, and other video recordings accessible to those who are hard of hearing or deaf.

Captioning

Although the sexual behavior of those with disabilities is often stigmatized or ignored by the public, studies have shown that those with disabilities generally still experience the same physical, sexual, and romantic desires that those without disabilities experience.

Disability and Sexuality

Audio Description is the process of narrating certain actions or details that are normally seen visually, such as what a character is wearing. This process is often provided with films, television shows, stage plays, museums to accommodate people with visual impairments. It is often provided via an alternate audio track on a DVD or a handheld audio player.

Audio Description

Working within disability studies and towards more inclusive educational opportunities requires both humility and immense activism. It is important to acknowledge the work is frequently going to be challenged. 

Public Attitude within the work of Disability 

The formation of an individual's disability identity relies on both social and psycholgocial factors related to acceptance and meaning/purpose. Thus, the development of this identity is dependant on interpersonal (social) and intrapersonal (psychological) awarness. 

Defining Disability Identity Development

Since most children with disabilities live into adulthood, a growing amount of research has been dedicated to analyzing the life course outcomes for these individuals. Studies show that while there are often more negative mental and physical health outcomes for individuals with disabilities, more and more people are experiencing similar life trajectories to their peers. This is due to similar opportunities with fulfilling age appropriate adult social roles and positive life experiences. 

Pathways Toward Positive Psychosocial Outcomes and Mental Health for Youth with Disabilities

Disability advocacy is defined as acting or speaking in ways that align with and protect the rights of people with disabilities. There are many different forms of advocacy and it can occur at multiple different levels. 

Defining Disability Advocacy 



People with disabilities can find it more difficult to eat healthy and be physically active. This might be due to: 
- A lack of healthy food choices.
- Difficulty with chewing or swallowing food, or its taste or texture.
- Medications that can contribute to weight gain, weight loss, and changes in appetite.
- Physical limitations that can reduce a person’s ability to exercise.
- Pain.
- A lack of energy.
- A lack of accessible environments (for example, sidewalks, parks, and exercise equipment) that can enable exercise.
- A lack of resources (for example, money, transportation, and social support from family, friends, neighbors, and community members).

Disability and Obesity

Disability Studies and Intersectionality


A field created from the merger of Disability studies, Black studies, postcolonial studies, and feminist studies  that focuses on the lives of Black disabled people and the relationship between race and disability as systems of privilege and oppression. In particular, there is a focus on how disability has appeared among Black people, how disability has been treated and understood within Black communities, how blackness and disability have been discursively linked in various cultures, and how disability an be understood as an identity experience and political category that has been conceptualized, and approached differently by Black activists and intellectuals than it has been by white activists and how this difference proposes and alternative framework of viewing disability. 

Black Disability Studies

Disability Justice is a framework that was developed in the mid-2000s by disabled people of color, disabled queer people, and disabled queer people of color, including Patty Berne, Leroy Moore, Leah Lakshmi Piepzna-Samarasinha, and Mia Mingus and groups including Sins Invalid, the Disability Justice Collective, and Azola Story.

Disability Justice 

A subsection of disability studies theory, whose name was inspired by queer theory, that emphasizes creating a theoretical approach to disability that looks at how disability functions as an ideology, a paradigm, an epistemology, and a system of oppression in addition to an identity experience.

Crip Theory 

Engagement with disability as a social and political category and embodiment rather than as a solely personal or medical experience.

Disability Politics

- The disabled population has a large percentage of children, with one third being children. 
  - Many of these disabilities are preventable, but lack of access to healthcare makes treatment difficult, resulting in 65 percent of disabilities affecting children being preventable. 
  - Even more alarming is the research that 98 percent of children with disabilities in low-income countries (LICs) do not attend school.
- Ten percent of the world's population has a sensory, physical, or intellectual disability. 
- Once taking family members into account, about 25 percent of people in the world are impacted by disabilities.
- Two thirds of all people with disabilities live in LICs. Global disability is rapidly increasing, mainly due to population growth in less developed countries, and this further shows the alarming disparity of disabled populations across the world. 

Statistics of Disabilities Across the World

In 2009, ⅔+ of homeless adults had some disability or mental, substance abuse disorder. However, many adults who are diaabled and homeless qualify for SSI and or SSDI support, which would provide benefits that would help secure housing and get recipients necessary treatment. Though, despite being eligible, many people are homeless do not apply for SSI and SSDI Programs. There has been limited research on initiatives aimed at increasing access and benefits for people with disabilities who are homeless.

Disability and Homelessness

NLTS and NLTS-2 shows a matriculation of students with learning disabilities into postsecondary education rose from 11.4% in 1990 to 34.5% in 2005. These students’ success have been notably limited given a 70% dropout rate, lower GPAs, and enrollment in easier programs compared to their non-disabled counterparts.

Learning Disability and Postsecondary Education

-  the community is very supportive of members that are blind and deaf. 
- There is resources available to support deaf and blind individuals. 
- American sign language (ASL) or augmentative and alternative communication devices (AAC)- communication. 
- Diversity in the deaf community 
- Hearing aids or cochlear implants for hearing 
- sensory deprivation- natural reduction of natural stimuli involving lights or five senses. 
-Deaf and blind students can access deaf school systems and higher levels of education. 

American Deaf and Blind Culture

The relationship between sex and disability has been a subject of study for over two decades. Yet, there remains no clear consensus on how sex influences disability and through which mechanisms this influence occurs. Despite the well-documented higher prevalence of self-reported disability among women compared to men, the effect of sex on disability varies significantly depending on the measures used and the covariates considered. 

The Role of Sex on Disability

When discussing disability, the focus is usually on basic accommodations such as interpreting, captions, or ramps. However, accommodations alone cannot guarantee real access for individuals with disabilities. That's why educators and professionals in schools and related fields must educate students about disabilities, end negative stereotypes, and ensure accessibility for disabled individuals. The goal is to recognize disability as a part of diversity and culture rather than a medical condition based on diagnosis.

Disability Culture at Schools

This research presents real-life knowledge about the connections between disability, sexuality, and gender equality issues in different Asian countries. It looks at the experiences of women and LGBTIQ people with disabilities, and their rights and empowerment. The research aims to help local disabled persons’ organizations and NGOs use human rights laws and work together with academics and human rights advocates. 

Asian Disability Studies

Cerebral palsy is a condition that affects movement and muscle control. It occurs when the brain is damaged before birth, during birth, or in early childhood. This damage makes it difficult for the body to move smoothly and in coordination. Some people with cerebral palsy have trouble walking, while others need help with daily tasks like eating or talking. The condition does not get worse over time, but affects everyone differently. There is no cure, but therapy, treatments, and assistive devices can help people with cerebral palsy live full and independent lives.

Cerebral Palsy

According to the text, the majority of college students who have a disability use social media daily. The average time spent amounts to 3.4 hours a day, this high usage is consistent across different types of disabilities, revealing the trend of social media’s prominent role in the lives of those who participated in the study. Participants had on average 4.8 social media accounts. Approximately 36% used social media primarily for social interaction, 17% for information seeking, and 17% for entertainment.


Social Media Use Is Nearly Universal Among College Students with Disabilities


Students from the study who are labeled as having some kind of disability possessed a wide range in the number of social media accounts they held, some having one account, others having as many as thirteen social media accounts. On average, students maintained around five accounts, which indicates diverse engagement across platforms and does not provide any major insight into social media trends in disabled populations.

Number of Social Media Accounts Varies Widely


The study found that the majority of students they surveyed used social media mostly for social interaction purposes, information seeking and entertainment were secondary purposes. These uses emphasize the significance of human connection regardless of disability status and the importance of being able to access information in their daily lives.

Primary Purposes of Social Media Use Among Students with Disabilities


According to the study findings, the use of social media for educational purposes, such as course-related communication, is linked to stronger social connections and shows an improved readiness for careers. This conclusion suggests that academic use of social media can be beneficial in enhancing outcomes in students with disabilities' college careers.

Social Media Learning Positively Impacts Social Connectedness and Career Preparedness


Students who spend more overall time on social media, regardless of intention or purpose, claimed to experience a lack of social connectedness and overall had lower hope for future employment. It can be said that overuse of social media may hinder social and career development in students with disabilities.

Excessive Time on Social Media Negatively Affects Social Connectedness and Career Hope


Addiction to social media showed a correlation with higher GPA and greater social connectedness, but did not reflect higher preparedness for a career. This shows that the results of social media on students with disabilities are not black and white, there are both positive and negative impacts on the surveyed population. 

Social Media Addiction Shows Mixed Effects


Younger students had higher social media addiction as well as better academic and social outcomes. Female students reported higher hope for work success, suggesting demographic differences do influence experiences.

Demographics Impact Social Media Use and College Outcomes

Statistics show an increase in college enrollment, but in spite of this, the article states that students with disabilities graduate less often and face more obstacles to employment in comparison to other students. 

Students with Disabilities Face Lower Graduation Rates and Career Challenges


Social media use has different influences on academic, social, and career success in students with disabilities. Understanding how social media influences students with disabilities can allow for more effective support strategies to be put into place.

Social Media Use and Student Outcomes

Social media can assist students with disabilities in fostering connections and preparing them for their future careers when it is used for learning and networking purposes. Based on the study findings, spending an excessive amount of time on social media for fun or distractions is what leads to feelings of isolation. Encouraging students to use social media more moderately can help them reap more benefits instead of negatively impacting their mental health and career goals.

Social Media Use as a Tool for Empowerment

This systematic review explores invisible disabilities in higher education, focusing on students' disclosure decisions and their academic impacts. Students often choose not to disclose their invisible disabilities due to stigma and previous negative experiences, creating a paradox where "what is unseen does not exist." This non-disclosure leads to substantial academic and personal challenges for affected students. The research identifies common barriers these students face and examines factors that promote their academic success. Personal resilience and informal support networks play crucial roles in student outcomes. However, the review emphasizes that systemic institutional change is essential, particularly through inclusive teaching practices such as Universal Design for Learning and mandatory faculty training. These systemic approaches are necessary to transform risks into opportunities and ensure all students can thrive in higher education environments.

When what is unseen does not exist: disclosure, barriers and supports for students with invisible disabilities in higher education

This paper explores three studies that discuss how the timing of group-membership entry—whether a disability is congenital ("born that way") or acquired ("became that way")—influences stigma. This research uniquely compares judgments of people with congenital disability to those with acquired disability, a distinction largely unexamined in previous disability stigma research.

Stigma Towards Congenital Versus Acquired Disability

Using a singular case study design, this study, unravels the complexity and  in-depth the meaning of lived experiences of a single demarcated person from multiple perspectives, revealing the historical life story of a person with intellectual and physical disabilities in the context of the Nazi’s euthanasia practices.

A Case Study of Nazi’s Eugenic Practices

This study explores ​​how young Indian women with visible physical impairments in India’s metropolitan cities construct beauty, experience embodiment, and, most importantly, how they challenge received views on physical attractiveness. 

‘Disabled and beautiful’: young women’s negotiations of beauty and body ideals

This study explores research concerning the identities of professional artists with intellectual disabilities. This research was conducted to further our understanding of the intersections of the arts and identity affirmation within the intellectual disability community. Specific attention is paid to the voices of individuals with intellectual disabilities and the words they used to describe their own experiences.

 The intersections of the arts and identity within the intellectual disability community

The process of listening and considering ideas from as many perspectives as possible to reason a conclusion and inform an strategic academic plan. 

Critical Inquiry Theory in Education

Learning science an interdisciplinary field that works to further our understanding of learning as well as to engage in the design and implementation of learning innovations. Contributing fields include cognitive science, computer science, educational psychology, anthropology, and applied linguistics. 

Learning Science

Critical Race Theory is an interdisciplinary movement made up of activists and scholars working to understand and change the relationships between race, racism, and power. 

Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Queer theory is a field of critical theory that can include different meanings, but most broadly referes to a lens that centers the abnormal (the queer) in order to demonstrate the socially constructed boundaries of the normal. 

Queer theory

Critical Practices in Literature 

Cultural Studies analyze the political dynamics of contemporary culture, such as "pop culture" and its historical basis. Cultural studies researchers review how cultural practices connect to wider systems of power associated with or operating through, social phenomena, including ideology, class structures, national formations, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, and generation.

Cultural Studies

The critical perspective emerged in the 1970's with roots in Black Feminism. 

History of Critical Perspective in Disabillity Studies

Black feminist thought understands race to play a role in whether society labels an individual as a woman. Thus, the term intersectionality was coined in 1989 to explain how power and status contribute to social organization and understanding. 


19th Century Black Feminist History Influenced the Inception of Intersectionality 

Disability studies resaerch often neglects the presence of an individual's identity which can have major influence over their subjective reality and reinforces oppressive systems. 

Critical Perspective of Disability Studies

The evolution of how the topics within education changed over time for people with disabilities in the United States of America.

History of Education for People with Disabilities in the United States of America

This study observes the effects of navigating a university environment with psychiatric disabilities. It observes students with disabilities and their overall experiences with the faculty and staff that are at universities that they are attending. There was a small group that was being studied, with 14 students being observed in total. The major themes are:

1.	The effects of stigma on the experience of being in university
2.	Impact and effect of the symptoms for students
3.	Strategies for coping with disability in the university environment
4.	Social support roles from staff and other faculty

“It’s all in your head:” Students with Psychiatric Disability Navigating the University Environment

- History of End of Life Treatment in Disability History

History of Bioethics in Disability History

- Important  Books
- Important  Figures
- Important Ideals
- Summarization of Race/Ethics in Disability History

History of Race/Ethnicity in Disability History

Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation was established in 1946 and initially focused on societal views of intellectual disabilities and ways to prevent them. JPK initiated funding for research from a multitude of hospitals and a national plan was ratified. 

History of Intellectual Disabilities, Sports, and Special Olympics


The disability civil rights movement formed as a social response in the 1970’s to the longstanding oppression, stigmatization and social exclusion of people with disabilities. It was the first time in history this marginalized community used their own voices to empower themselves by fighting for policy changes that would allow for social inclusion and a more equitable social structure. 


History of the Disability Civil Rights Movement 


- Disability people during COVID-19 pandemic 
- Risk factors of disabled people in infecting with COVID-19
- Healthcare system of Disability during pandemic
- Recommendations

COVID-19 Pandemic and people with disability

According to evidence from ancient cultures, such as that of the Greeks, attitudes concerning/towards disabled persons was not an attitude of “othering”. The exclusion of disabled persons and the view that they are a burden on society was something that developed with the advent of the Industrial age when a focus on production became paramount.

Ancient View of  Disability and Industrial Perception

In the English language, the concept of “normalcy” applying to humans or ways of being is not particularly old in the grand scheme of language development. Such a usage of “normal” did not enter the English language until about 1840.

The Concept of Normalcy

Sir Francis Galton, cousin to Charles Darwin, was one of the first early statisticians to consider ideas like normalcy or ways of being of the so-called average person. Additionally, Galton was interested in eugenics and inheritance- he actually invented the word eugenics. It is worth mentioning that Galton also developed the idea that fingerprints might be inherited and should be used for identification- pushing the idea that a person’s body and the features inherited from birth are indelibly tied to their identity. 

Sir Francis Galton


In 1883, inventor and scientist Alexander Graham Bell gave a famous ableist speech titled Memoir upon the Formation of a Deaf Variety of the Human Race. In said speech, Bell posits that d/Deaf individuals commonly choose other d/Deaf individuals to be their partners, often leading to d/Deaf children. Ultimately the speech warns that this could lead to an entire race of d/Deaf people. This may be seen as a villanization of disabled persons interacting and forming relationships.


Alexander Graham Bell and Eugenics

Karl Pearson was a leading figure in the development of the eugenics movement in the anglophone world. During the Edwardian period, Pearson led the Department of Applied Statistics in England. In his work, Pearson lumped together disabled individuals, the mentally ill, criminals, and violent individuals, villainizing disabilities overtly and proposing that they be removed from society altogether.

Karl Pearson


Charles Davenport was a biologist and leading eugenicist in America. In 1911 he founded the Eugenics Record Office. Davenport theorized that the influx of immigrants in America would increase the cases of crime and would introduce more disabled and mentally ill people.


Charles Davenport

In the 1970s and 1980s, disability studies was predominantly headed by scholars and researchers employing a political and sociological focus. In the late 1980s and 1990s disability studies was popularized in the humanities and arts after being brought into the academic conversation by those in cultural studies. Around the 90s scholars therefore began looking to literature as a source of cultural commentary concerning disability and normalcy.

Disability Studies in the Arts and Humanities

The UNCRPD (The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities) defines disability as long-term physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory impairments that, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder full and effective participation in society. People with disabilities are not a homogenous group, and individual experiences are influenced by factors such as impairment type, gender, age, family support, and environment.

What Is Disability?

People with disabilities are all different. They have different impairments and come from various places. This affects the medical care they need and how they get it. For example, kids with disabilities need to be identified early and get extra help when they are young. This helps them grow and do things better. Older adults with disabilities often have more than one problem, which makes it hard for them to get healthcare. Women with disabilities may face discrimination based on gender and disability and so have more difficulties accessing services. 

Who Are The People Affected by Disabilities?

This is a book published in 2020 that talks about 10 lessons for people with disabilities to thrive in today's society.

The Power of Disability

The term c/s/x movement is used to encapsulate what has been known as the psychiatric, or mental-health, consumer, survivor and ex-patient movement. This movement is considered to have first emerged in about 1970 with a multi-national history with movement work happening in North America, Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, continental Europe, South America, and Australia by the 1980s. The movement is mainly concerned with both the promotion of self-help and peer support models of mental-health care and also a reform of the psychiatric services model.

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