A study by Schwarz and colleagues illustrates the power of testing competing theories by investigating how individuals judge their own assertiveness. They compared two conflicting theories: one suggesting judgments are based on the number of examples recalled, and another suggesting judgments rely on the ease of recalling examples. By asking participants to recall either six (easy) or twelve (difficult) examples, the theories made mutually exclusive predictions. The finding that people recalling fewer examples felt more assertive provided decisive evidence supporting the ease-of-retrieval theory over the number-of-examples theory.

Example of Testing Competing Theories: Self-Judgment

What does the ease-of-retrieval theory propose regarding how individuals make judgments about themselves?

The ease-of-retrieval theory is a psychological model suggesting that when individuals make judgments about themselves, such as their level of assertiveness, they base their assessment on how easily they can bring relevant examples to mind, rather than the total number of examples recalled.

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In science, a theory is a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena. It extends beyond directly observed events by incorporating unobserved variables, structures, processes, or organizing principles. While the term 'theory' in everyday language often implies an untested guess, scientific theories have no such implication; they can range from untested explanations to rigorously evaluated, well-supported models accepted by the scientific community, such as the theory of evolution or the germ theory of disease.

Scientific Theory

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KPU Research Methods in Psychology - 4th American Edition

A hypothesis is a specific prediction regarding the outcome of a particular scientific study. In the hypothetico-deductive method, hypotheses are derived directly from broader theories and are then tested empirically to support or reevaluate those theories. Importantly, disconfirming a hypothesis does not necessarily mean that the underlying theory from which it was derived has been disproved.

Hypothesis

In the scientific process, theories are continuously evaluated through the testing of hypotheses. Theories that consistently stand up to empirical testing are retained and further refined, while those that do not are either modified or completely discarded.

Evaluation of Scientific Theories

Zajonc's drive theory serves as a prime example of how scientific theories use unobservable concepts to explain complex phenomena. The theory explains social facilitation and social inhibition by proposing that being observed by an audience triggers a state of physiological arousal. This unobserved arousal increases the probability of an individual executing their dominant response, leading to better performance on well-practiced tasks but worse performance on relatively unpracticed ones.

Zajonc's Drive Theory

Habituation theory is the psychological idea that expressive writing causes people to habituate, or become accustomed, to negative thoughts and feelings over time. This theory can be used to logically derive specific hypotheses, such as predicting whether writing about positive or traumatic experiences will improve health.

Habituation Theory

The number-of-examples theory is a psychological model proposing that when people make judgments about themselves, such as their level of assertiveness, they base their evaluation on the sheer quantity of relevant examples they can bring to mind. It is often contrasted with the ease-of-retrieval theory.

Number-of-Examples Theory

Ease-of-Retrieval Theory

A primary method for incorporating theory into scientific research is to use it as a post-hoc explanation for new empirical findings. In this approach, researchers first raise a research question, conduct a study to answer it, and then offer one or more existing theories to explain or interpret the observed results. This strategy is particularly effective for applied research questions or for exploratory areas where existing theoretical frameworks do not yet provide clear predictions.

Post-Hoc Theory Explanation Approach

Incorporating established scientific theories into research offers several key benefits for researchers. Utilizing an existing theoretical framework provides practical guidance for generating new experiment ideas and structuring potential research projects. Furthermore, grounding a study in recognized psychological theories lends academic legitimacy to the work. Rather than restricting creativity, leveraging these established explanations helps researchers build upon a solid foundation of prior knowledge, allowing them to break new ground.

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