Researchers provided a group intervention program for young adults currently receiving mental health care services, as well as their parents over a period of 6 months. The program covered topics such as preparing for new responsibilities and coping mechanisms for managing a mental disorder. After the program, 100% of young adults and their parents deemed the program acceptable for a friend or family member. In addition, researchers noted that participants' future outlook greatly improved after the duration of the intervention program.

Effectiveness of Group-Based Psychotherapy for Young Adults and Their Parents Before Attending University

A case study was conducted in Thai Nguyen Province Vietnam, where 359 participants, aged 18-65 years, and their PHQ-9 scores were examined 12 months after a series of group psychotherapy sessions. Researchers found that participants' PHQ-9 scores decreased significantly after treatment, as the mean PHQ score dropped from 13.29 to 2.83 at the 12 month mark. 

Claremont McKenna College

This list includes different types of methods for treating and/or managing different depressive disorders. These include:
-	Drug Treatments 
-	Therapies
-	Medical Interventions


Treatment and Management Methods for Depressive Disorders

1. Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (2017). Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychological Bulletin, 143(8), 783–822. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000102

4. Tsoutsi, V., Papadakaki, M., Yannis, G., Pavlou, D., Basta, M., Chliaoutakis, J., & Dikeos, D. (2023). Driving behaviour in depression based on subjective evaluation and data from a driving simulator. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(8), 5609. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20085609

5. Rubenstein, L. M., Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Flynn, M., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015). The cyclical nature of depressed mood and future risk: Depression, rumination, and deficits in emotional clarity in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 42(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.03.015

10. Choi, Y., Lee, M., Lee, J. P., Park, M., Lee, S. Y., & Hahm, H. C. (2020). Disempowering parenting and Mental Health Among Asian American Youth: Immigration and Ethnicity. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101077. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101077

11. Liu, X.-Q., Guo, Y.-X., Zhang, W.-J., & Gao, W.-J. (2022). Influencing factors, prediction and prevention of depression in college students: A literature review. World Journal of Psychiatry, 12(7), 860–873. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v12.i7.860

12. Conner, K. R., Pinquart, M., & Gamble, S. A. (2009). Meta-analysis of depression and substance use among individuals with alcohol use disorders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 37(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.11.007

13. Rogers, D. L., Tanaka, M. J., Cosgarea, A. J., Ginsburg, R. D., & Dreher, G. M. (2023). How mental health affects injury risk and outcomes in athletes. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 16(2), 222–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381231179678

14. Steinert, C., Hofmann, M., Kruse, J., & Leichsenring, F. (2014). Relapse rates after psychotherapy for depression – stable long-term effects? A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 168, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.06.043

15. Melrose, S. (2011). Perfectionism and depression: Vulnerabilities nurses need to understand. Nursing Research and Practice, 2011, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/858497

16. Smalley, K. B., Warren, J. C., & Barefoot, K. N. (2016). Connection between depression and inability to fill prescriptions in rural FQHC patients with chronic disease. Journal of Rural Mental Health, 40(2), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/rmh0000051

17. Raza, A., Partonen, T., Hanson, L. M., Asp, M., Engström, E., Westerlund, H., & Halonen, J. I. (2024). Daylight during winters and symptoms of depression and sleep problems: A within-individual analysis. Environment International, 183, 108413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2023.108413

18. Lin, L. yi, Sidani, J. E., Shensa, A., Radovic, A., Miller, E., Colditz, J. B., Hoffman, B. L., Giles, L. M., & Primack, B. A. (2016). Association between social media use and depression among U.S. young adults. Depression and Anxiety, 33(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22466

19. Zare, H., Meyerson, N. S., Nwankwo, C. A., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022). How income and income inequality drive depressive symptoms in U.S. adults, does sex matter: 2005–2016. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(10), 6227. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19106227

20. Campbell, P. D., Miller, A. M., & Woesner, M. E. (2017). Bright Light Therapy: Seasonal Affective Disorder and Beyond. The Einstein journal of biology and medicine : EJBM, 32, E13–E25.

21. Jiang, Z., Egan, S. J., Greene, D., Frost, M., Ma, Y., & Shafran, R. (2025). The impact of perfectionism on treatment outcomes of mental health disorders: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2025.2547199

22. Komischke-Konnerup, K. B., Zachariae, R., Johannsen, M., Nielsen, L. D., & O’Connor, M. (2021). Co-occurrence of prolonged grief symptoms and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress in bereaved adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 4, 100140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100140

23. Auersperg, F., Vlasak, T., Ponocny, I., & Barth, A. (2019). Long-term effects of parental divorce on Mental Health – a meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 119, 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.09.011 

27. Abdulhamed, R., Lonka, K., Hietajärvi, L., Ikonen, R., & Klemetti, R. (2022). Anxiety and depression symptoms and their association with discrimination and a lack of social support among first- and second-generation immigrant adolescents. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 87, 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2022.03.001 

29. Chugani, C. D., Goldstein, T. R., Salk, R. H., Poling, K., Sakolsky, D., & Brent, D. (2020). Group Intervention for Young Adults With Mood and Anxiety Disorders Transitioning to College. Journal of psychiatric practice, 26(2), 120–125. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000456

30. Yttredahl, A. A., McRobert, E., Sheler, B., Mickey, B. J., Love, T. M., Langenecker, S. A., Zubieta, J. K., & Hsu, D. T. (2018). Abnormal emotional and neural responses to romantic rejection and acceptance in depressed women. Journal of affective disorders, 234, 231–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.02.083

31. Mandal, B., Ayyagari, P., & Gallo, W. T. (2011). Job loss and depression: the role of subjective expectations. Social science & medicine (1982), 72(4), 576–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.11.014

34. Deng, Y., Cherian, J., Khan, N. U. N., Kumari, K., Sial, M. S., Comite, U., Gavurova, B., & Popp, J. (2022). Family and Academic Stress and Their Impact on Students' Depression Level and Academic Performance. Frontiers in psychiatry, 13, 869337. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.869337

35. Lok, R., & Zeitzer, J. M. (2025). Chronotype and Mental Health: Are Late Sleepers More Vulnerable?. Current psychiatry reports, 27(10), 544–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-025-01626-4

36. Franzen, P. L., & Buysse, D. J. (2008). Sleep disturbances and depression: risk relationships for subsequent depression and therapeutic implications. Dialogues in clinical neuroscience, 10(4), 473–481. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.4/plfranzen

37. Hou, X., & Hu, J. (2023). Depression and bedtime procrastination: Chain mediation of brooding and perceived stress. Heliyon, 9(12), e22672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22672

38. Kizilbash, A. (2002). The effects of depression and anxiety on memory performance. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 17(1), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-6177(00)00101-3 

39. Kim, S., Jang, Y. S., & Park, E. C. (2025). Associations between social isolation, withdrawal, and depressive symptoms in young adults: a cross-sectional study. BMC psychiatry, 25(1), 327. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-06792-6

40. Murthy, R. S., & Lakshminarayana, R. (2006). Mental health consequences of war: a brief review of research findings. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 5(1), 25–30.

41. Carpiniello B. (2023). The Mental Health Costs of Armed Conflicts-A Review of Systematic Reviews Conducted on Refugees, Asylum-Seekers and People Living in War Zones. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(4), 2840. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042840

42. Feitosa, C. D. A., & Fernandes, M. A. (2020). Leave of absence due to depression. Revista latino-americana de enfermagem, 28, e3274. https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.3634.3274

43. Alshammaa, H. I., Al-Taie, R. H., & Mujbel, A. M. (2024). Impact of Long-Term Depression on Employment Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Case Series From Iraq on Career Trajectory and Job Stability. Cureus, 16(10), e70755. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.70755

44. Dupéré, V., Dion, E., Nault-Brière, F., Archambault, I., Leventhal, T., & Lesage, A. (2018). Revisiting the Link Between Depression Symptoms and High School Dropout: Timing of Exposure Matters. The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 62(2), 205–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.09.024

45. Ye, Z., Wu, D., He, X., Ma, Q., Peng, J., Mao, G., Feng, L., & Tong, Y. (2023). Meta-analysis of the relationship between bullying and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. BMC psychiatry, 23(1), 215. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04681-4

46. Klein, D. N., Kotov, R., & Bufferd, S. J. (2011). Personality and depression: explanatory models and review of the evidence. Annual review of clinical psychology, 7, 269–295. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104540

47. Breier, A., Charney, D. S., & Heninger, G. R. (1984). Major depression in patients with agoraphobia and panic disorder. Archives of general psychiatry, 41(12), 1129–1135. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790230015002

48. Doolittle, B. R., & Farrell, M. (2004). The Association Between Spirituality and Depression in an Urban Clinic. Primary care companion to the Journal of clinical psychiatry, 6(3), 114–118. https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.v06n0302

49. Moore MJ, Shawler E, Jordan CH, et al. Veteran and Military Mental Health Issues. [Updated 2023 Aug 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2026 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK572092/

50. Targum, S. D., & Fava, M. (2011). Fatigue as a residual symptom of depression. Innovations in clinical neuroscience, 8(10), 40–43.

51. Ramadhan, R. N., Rampengan, D. D., Yumnanisha, D. A., Setiono, S. B., Tjandra, K. C., Ariyanto, M. V., Idrisov, B., & Empitu, M. A. (2024). Impacts of digital social media detox for mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Narra J, 4(2), e786. https://doi.org/10.52225/narra.v4i2.786

References for Depression

- Monoamine hypothesis
- Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
- Reserpine
- Tricyclics
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Drug Treatments for Depressive Disorders

A study following 280 patients suffering from chronic depression compared patients' conditions at time of assessment, before treatment, after treatment, and one year after treatment. Patients were either placed in an inpatient program or on a waiting list. Researchers found that participants who were placed in one of two inpatient programs scored significantly lower on the Beck Depression Inventory - II after treatment compared to those who were placed on a waiting list. Thus, the inpatient programs proved to be notably effective for individuals with chronic depression.

Effectiveness of Intensive Inpatient Program for Chronic Depression Patients

Effectiveness of Group-Based Psychotherapy for Depression

While traditional treatment methods have proven to be successful, gaming has emerged as a new potential cheaper alternative. Studies have shown that games have improved socialization, cognition, goal setting, and emotion regulation amongst clinical and nonclinical participants.

Gaming as a Coping Mechanism

1. Kowal, M., Conroy, E., Ramsbottom, N., Smithies, T., Toth, A., & Campbell, M. (2020). Gaming your mental health: A narrative review on mitigating symptoms of depression and anxiety using commercial video games (preprint). JMIR Serious Games. https://doi.org/10.2196/preprints.26575

2. Eielsen, M., Ulvenes, P. G., Røssberg, J. I., Høstmælingen, A., Soma, C. S., & Wampold, B. E. (2022). The Effectiveness of an Intensive Inpatient Psychotherapy Program for Chronic Depression: A naturalistic comparison with wait list. BMC psychiatry, 22(1), 745. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-022-04381-5

3. Do, M. T., Nguyen, T. T., & Tran, H. T. (2023). Twelve-month trajectories of depression after group-based psychotherapy led by nonspecialists at Primary Health Centers: A case study from Vietnam. Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy, 33(3), 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbct.2023.09.002

4. Joshi, A. C., Ghogare, A. S., & Madavi, P. B. (2025). Systematic review of artificial intelligence enabled psychological interventions for depression and anxiety: A comprehensive analysis. Industrial psychiatry journal, 34(2), 158–166. https://doi.org/10.4103/ipj.ipj_363_24

5. Shevchuk, N. A. (2008). Adapted cold shower as a potential treatment for depression. Medical Hypotheses, 70(5), 995–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2007.04.052

6. Ma, H., Cai, M., & Wang, H. (2021). Emotional Blunting in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder: A Brief Non-systematic Review of Current Research. Frontiers in psychiatry, 12, 792960. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.792960

7. Sohal, M., Singh, P., Dhillon, B. S., & Gill, H. S. (2022). Efficacy of journaling in the management of mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Family medicine and community health, 10(1), e001154. https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2021-001154

8. Mota Pereira, J., & Fonte, D. (2018). Pets enhance antidepressant pharmacotherapy effects in patients with treatment resistant major depressive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 104, 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2018.07.004 

References for Depression Treatment Methods

A review of 10 studies on the use of AI as a form of psychotherapy yielded positive results, as 71.67% of the studies noted AI's potential to identify and  treat mental disorders. Studies also indicate that therapy provided by AI chatbots were much more effective than self-led book therapy in alleviating depression and anxiety symptoms.

The Use of AI to Treat Depression

A study conducted on a small group of participants discovered that adapted cold showers were able to alleviate and reduce depressive symptoms. This hypothesis was supported by the fact that cold objects are able to affect the sympathetic nervous system and help stimulate neurotransmitter activity in the brain.

Cold Showers as a Treatment Method

Many MDD patients experience emotional numbness as a side effect of their antidepressants. Some patients simply experience a dulling of their emotions, while other patients may experience a complete inability to feel any emotions. In order to address this phenomenon, many providers either decrease the antidepressant dosage or recommend a switch in patients' medication.

Emotional Blunting as a Side Effect

A review on 20 trials on the effects of journaling supported the use of journaling for treating mental illnesses. Researchers found that journaling had a slight positive effect on many mental illnesses, including depression. Many researchers believe journaling should be implemented as a potential treatment method due to its low cost and self sustainability, although more research should be conducted on the subject.

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