- analyzing the distribution of cases in a community or region and uncovering the distinguishing characteristics of the affected individuals or groups
- Epidemiological methods can also be quite important in identifying groups of individuals who are at risk.

Expectations for Epidemiological Methods

The study Smoking and Health (Surgeon General, 1964). 
- This study linked cigarette smoking with lung cancer by the simple methods of counting and correlating.
- There were definite relationships and associations between smoking and lung cancer (e.g., about 90% of lung cancer in males was associated with cigarette smoking, and the amount and duration of smoking were positively correlated with probability of cancer).
- It is true that epidemiological research frequently suggests the possibility of multiple causation (several factors must be present before the disease occurs, or the greater the number associated factors that are present, the greater the risk of the disease). 

Smoking and Health Study

Much of epidemiological research is based on interview and surveys. Survey and interview data present a number of issues and potential problems. we need objective methods of defining and measuring a problem. Further, we need survey procedures that will enable us to estimate the problem's true incidence or prevalence and not just to locate 
those cases that are already under treatment or that have identified themselves by seeking treatment

Problems

Types of epidemiological studies include:

- Observational studies
- Experimental studies

Approaches to Epidemiological Studies

Regarding epidemiology, the expectation is that analyzing the distribution of cases in a community or region and uncovering the distinguishing characteristics of the affected individuals or groups will teach us something about the causes of a particular disease and the methods by which it spreads. Epidemiological methods can also be quite important in identifying groups of individuals who are at risk.

Syracuse University

University of Notre Dame

There are many methods of research utilized in Clinical Psychology. 

Methods of Research in Clinical Psychology

The study of the incidence, prevalence, and distribution of illness or disease in a given population

Epidemiology

Trull , T. J., &amp; Prinstein , M. J. (2013). Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . In Clinical Psychology (Eighth, pp. 93–124). Textbook, Wadsworth Cengage Learning . 

Clinical Psychology Eighth Edition 

Epidemiological Methods 

Another way of classifying research studies is by considering whether the studies are cross-sectional or longitudinal in nature.

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Approaches 

Utilized to determine cause-effect relationships among events. 

Experimental Method 

Here, participants who can be divided into specific populations (e.g. schizophrenic vs. normal) are assigned as groups to each experimental condition. In this way, variables such as psychosis or normality are not manipulated or induced by the investigator. Instead, they are correlated with the experimental condition. 

Mixed Designs 

Various research methods commonly used by clinical psychologists each have different strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Quantitative research relies on measuring variables using a numerical system, analyzing these measurements using any of a variety of statistical models, and reporting relationships and associations among the studied variables. The goal of gathering quantitative data is to understand, describe, and predict the nature of a phenomenon, particularly through the development of models and theories.

Quantitative Methods

Alderfer, M. A., & Sood, E. (2016). Using qualitative research methods to improve clinical care in pediatric psychology. Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology, 4(4), 358-361. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/cpp0000164

Using qualitative research methods to improve clinical care in pediatric psychology

Qualitative research in clinical care settings involves the communication between a patient (and sometimes their family members) and their doctor in order to comprehend a patient's symptoms. Therefore, qualitative research in clinical psychology is extremely valuable and helpful in the diagnosis and treatment of individuals. 

Qualitative Methods

The most basic and pervasive of all research methods is observation.  Experimental, case study, and naturalistic approaches all involve making observations of what someone is doing or has done. 

- Unsystematic Observation
- Naturalistic Observation
- Controlled Observation 


Observation in Psychology 

Correlational research is a widespread type of non-experimental research in which an investigator measures two variables—either continuous or categorical—and evaluates the statistical relationship (correlation) between them. Crucially, the researcher does this with little to no effort to control extraneous variables or manipulate an independent variable. It is often chosen when a relationship is not believed to be causal, or when exploring causal relationships where manipulating the independent variable is impossible, impractical, or unethical. By utilizing this strategy, researchers can achieve two fundamental scientific goals: describing the strength and direction of the relationship between the variables, and predicting scores on one variable based on the other using a statistical technique called regression.

Correlational Research

In the psychological sciences, you can conduct basic research and applied research. 

Basic research is theoretical research that explains why and how psychological processes occur 

Example of basic research: How do different parts of the brain process emotions?

Applied research is research that aims to solve a problem and aims to produce immediate, practical outcomes. 

Example of applied research: Testing a specific psychotherapy technique for treating depression

Basic research vs. applied research

Single-subject research, frequently referred to as small-$$n$$ design (where $$n$$ represents the statistical symbol for sample size), is a quantitative methodology that involves studying a small number of participants and focusing closely on each individual's behavior. Despite its name, this approach typically investigates between two and ten participants rather than just one. Serving as a crucial alternative to group research, particularly in applied areas of psychology, single-subject research seeks to comprehend objective behavior by utilizing strict experimental manipulation and control to collect highly structured data that is analyzed using quantitative techniques.

Single-Subject Research

Features of Epidemiology include:

- Etiology
- Disease transmission
- Morbidity
- Morbidity rate
- Mortality
- Mortality rate

Features of Epidemiology

Traditional model for infectious disease that consits of an agent/pathogen, a susceptible host, and an environment.  Disease is a result of an agent/pathogen and a susceptible host interacting in an environment that enables transmission. 

Epidemiological Triangle

Pioneers in epidemiology include:
- John Snow
- Florence Nightingale
- Ignaz Semmelweis
- Joseph Lister
- Robert Koch
- Louis Pasteur

Pioneers in Epidemiology

Multiple international public health agencies have worked towards improving public health and healthcare programs, monitoring disease risks, and communicating and coordinating with other international agencies to uphold global public health.

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