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Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston used behavioral coding to study the emotional reactions of bowlers. They established a predetermined list of target behaviors, such as 'open smile' and 'face cover,' which observers memorized before categorizing participants' reactions. To demonstrate inter-rater reliability, two independent observers coded a subset of video-recorded reactions, achieving a $$97\%$$ agreement rate. Their findings suggested that smiling is largely a form of social communication, as bowlers rarely smiled while facing the pins but frequently smiled when turning toward companions.

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