The amygdala is a section of the brain that processes fearful stimuli. Patients with anxiety disorders exhibit stronger amygdala responses than patients without anxiety disorders. Studies suggest that mindfulness interventions can reduce the amygdala response in patients with anxiety disorders.

New York University

Somatic:

- Improved Immune Response

- Improvement in Conditions Worsened by Stress

Neurological:

- Improved functioning of the amygdala and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

- Increased gray matter in the right anterior insula

- Increased left-sided anterior activation

- Increased connection between the amygdala and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC)

Physical Effects Resulting From Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

The amygdala is a key brain structure that plays a central role in processing and relaying emotional information, making it a major focus of research into the biological basis of emotions like fear and anxiety. It is composed of various subnuclei and has a crucial role in memory, influencing how memories are stored—a process affected by stress hormones—and is involved in memory consolidation, the transfer of new learning into long-term memory. This is facilitated by enabling a deeper level of memory encoding for emotionally arousing events.

Amygdala

Generally speaking, anxiety is a reaction by the body that ensues negative internal experiences such as negative thoughts or feelings. Physical changes may also follow, such as an increase in blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, trembling, and so on.

Anxiety

Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt (December 19th 2012). The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders, The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager, Barbara Ferry, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/50323. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/41589

The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders

Greeson, J. M. (2009). Mindfulness Research Update: 2008. Complementary Health Practice Review, 14(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210108329862

Mindfulness Research Update: 2008

Various structures on the left side of the anterior section of the brain are associated with positive emotion and stronger activation of this region indicates an increase in positive affect. Mindfulness meditation has shown an increase in left-sided anterior activation, suggesting an increase in positive affect for those who practice mindfulness.

Mindfulness Effects on Left-Sided Anterior Activation

Mindfulness mediation has been tied to a stronger immune system. A study found that participants who practiced mindfulness meditation exhibited a stronger response to flu vaccinations than participants who did not practice meditation. 

Mindfulness Effects on Immune Response

The Right Anterior Insula is a brain region associated with processing emotions, especially one's own emotions in relation to needs (pain, hunger, etc.). Mindfulness has been linked to an increase in gray matter in this region, which indicates improved processing of one's emotions.

Mindfulness Effects on the Right Anterior Insula

Mindfulness Effects on the Amygdala and Anxiety

The Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex is a region of the brain involved in directing attention and ignoring distractions. Long-term mindfulness practice has been linked to increased activation in this region, suggesting that mindfulness practice can improve one's ability to regulate their attention.

Mindfulness Effects on Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBI) have been shown to improve symptoms related to a variety of physical disorders, including cancer, chronic pain or fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), epilepsy, heart disease, tinnitus, and acquired brain injury.

Mindfulness Effects on Patients with Physical Health Conditions 

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) interventions have been shown to increase connectivity between the amygdala and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC). This could, in turn, increase abilities to regulate emotions.

Neurological Effects Resulting From Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction: Increased connection between the amygdala and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC)

Since more than half of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) display sensory over-responsivity, are there differences in brain response, habituation, and connectivity during exposure to sensory stimuli between children with ASD and sensory over-responsivity, compared to neurotypical children?

Neurobiology of sensory symptoms in ASD (research question)

Due to its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is heavily involved in memory consolidation, which is the process of transferring newly learned information into long-term memory. It facilitates the encoding of memories at a much deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing.

Amygdala's Role in Memory Consolidation

Josselyn's 2010 experiment with rats illustrates the amygdala's role in memory storage. Using Pavlovian conditioning, rats were taught to associate a neutral tone with a foot shock, which produced a fear memory causing them to freeze defensively upon hearing the tone. However, when researchers induced cell death in the neurons of the lateral amygdala, the conditioned fear memory faded and became extinct, demonstrating that this region is essential for retaining fear-based memories.

Example of Amygdala's Role in Fear Memory: Josselyn's Rat Experiment

The amygdala is composed of various subnuclei, two of which are the basolateral complex and the central nucleus.

Subnuclei of the Amygdala

A study by Raineki et al. (2012) investigated the impact of negative early life experiences on rat pups. Pups were subjected to abusive conditions between postnatal days 8 and 12, which included either the mother having insufficient bedding material to build a proper nest or the pups undergoing fear conditioning (pairing an odor with a shock) without their mother present. Compared to a control group raised in normal conditions, the abused pups displayed more depressive-like behaviors during adolescence. These behavioral changes were correlated with heightened activation in the amygdala, suggesting that early life trauma can alter amygdala function and lead to behaviors that model human mood disorders.

Early Life Abuse in Rats Alters Amygdala Function and Induces Depressive-Like Behaviors

Human studies indicate a significant link between the amygdala and psychological conditions such as mood and anxiety disorders. Evidence shows that adolescents who are either diagnosed with or at high risk for these disorders often exhibit alterations in both the structure and function of their amygdala.

Amygdala's Role in Human Mood and Anxiety Disorders

Given the following scenario, identify the brain structure most responsible for the difference in memory recall between the two individuals and explain the mechanism behind this difference.

Emotional Memory Formation

Given the following scenario, identify the brain structure most responsible for the described emotional and memory-related responses and explain your reasoning.

Emotional Memory and Brain Function

Henry Molaison (H.M.) is one of psychology's most famous case studies. In 1953, surgeons removed large sections of his hippocampus to treat severe epilepsy. While the surgery successfully stopped his seizures without affecting his IQ or personality, it left him with anterograde amnesia. His short-term memory remained intact, but he permanently lost the ability to transfer new information into long-term memory—a process known as consolidation. This case was crucial for memory research because it demonstrated a clear dissociation between short-term and long-term memory and highlighted the temporal lobes' essential role in memory consolidation.

Case of Henry Molaison (H.M.)

The lateral amygdala is the specific area of the brain that is responsible for fear memories.

Lateral Amygdala

Cerebral Palsy is known to make the stresses of life more overwhelming. Individuals tend to become shy in social situations out of fear of being bullied or teased by others. They are more prone to depression and anxiety disorders.

Psychological Impacts of Cerebral Palsy


- Persistent worry or feeling overwhelmed by emotions.

- Excessive worry about a number of concerns, such as health problems or finances, and a general sense that something bad is going to happen.

- Restlessness and irritability.

- Difficulty concentrating, sleep problems and generally feeling on edge.

Signs of Anxiety

Some researchers believe that mindfulness is a natural state, so they searched for predictors of mindfulness.  Predictors they looked at included openness to experience and attentional control.  During their study they looked at trait anxiety, attachment anxiety and attentional control. Due to anxiety blocking many of the predictors they tested for, it was concluded that anxiety (both specific and general) is agonistic to mindfulness.  So, because anxiety turns anxious people away from mindfulness, it makes sense to help treat anxiety with mindfulness-based interventions.

Natural Mindfulness and Anxiety

The psychological consequences of distress due to experiencing an environmental disaster.

“Eco-anxiety”

- Generalized anxiety disorder
- Social anxiety disorder
- Specific phobias

Anxiety Disorders Treated by Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

- The HADS scale was used to determine levels of anxiety and depression
- It was found that there is a statistically significant relationship between the HADS score and cortisol levels
  - As levels of depression and anxiety increased, cortisol levels also increased
- COVID-19 Patients who had passed away had higher serum cortisol levels compared to the COVID-19 patients that survived
- Stress increases one’s susceptibility to respiratory tract infections, making patients more vulnerable to getting a cold
  - The immune cells become unable to regulate inflammation
- As tissues become less sensitive to cortisol due to high levels of stress, it becomes more difficult to regulate stress levels

Anxiety and Cortisol Levels in COVID-19 Patients

- Depression
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
- Hoarding Disorder
- Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
- Anxiety/ Panic Disorders
- Social Anxiety Disorder
- Body dysmorphic disorder
- Schizophrenia 
- Borderline Personality Disorder

Mental Disorders Affected By The Covid-19 Pandemic

Emotions can play a large factor in the formation of political identity, as well as influence their belief in political misinformation. Anxiety and anger can result in differences in how an individual approaches political misinformation. Having anxiety can influence a person to further seek out political information learning, whereas being angry can influence a person to be more close-minded with the political information they are presented with.

Anxiety and Anger on Partisan Bias in Accepting Misinformation

Anxiety disorders are characterized by features of excessive fear and anxiety, as well as related behavioral disturbances. These symptoms are often not temporary and linger beyond typical expectations. Excessiveness of these symptoms is clinician diagnosed with cultural contexts taken into consideration.

Anxiety Disorders

Exploring how concussion-induced anxiety can be helped by exercise

Concussions, Anxiety, and Exercise

Anxiety may result in or worsen mental/physical conditions.
 

- Depression or other mental disorders
- Substance misuse
- Insomnia
- Bowel issues
- Headaches/ Chronic Pain
- Social Isolation
- Problems with daily functioning, including at school or work
- Poor quality of life 
- Suicidal
- Nausea/Vomitting

Complications of Anxiety

- Oftentimes, anxiety disorders go hand in hand with eating disorders

Comorbidity with Anxiety

The data on measures and therapeutic alliances was not significant. Still, observable trends showed that the combination of CBT and animal-assisted therapy may be beneficial for easing anxiety symptoms in school-aged children.  

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