People compare their current self to internalized standards or the “ideal/ought self.” Inconsistencies among these different selves are associated with emotional discomforts that motivate us to take actions to help meet our ideal self.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Proposed by Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their own ability to successfully complete a specific task. This belief, which can be influenced by past successes in similar tasks, is considered a key factor in determining a person's motivation, emotional state, and subsequent behavior.

Self-Efficacy

A sense of mastery that gives people the necessary resources to be able to plan to achieve their goals, deal with problems that thwart their progress, and pursue self-regulatory activities.

Sense of Personal Control

Refers to whether our attention is directed toward the self (self-awareness) or towards external factors. In self-awareness, we tend to judge our behavior against an internalized standard and adjust behavior to fit that standard.

Self-Focus

Situations of Events That Impairs Our Ability To Self-Regulate:
- Social Exclusion
- High Cognitive Load

Threats to Self-Regulation

Self-regulations are conscious and unconscious motivations and controlling actions that guide us towards achieving our personal goals. Some examples of these motivations include the need for consistent and accurate self, the desire to improve the self, and self-enhancement.

Alma College

The self-concept refers to one's fundamental sense of identity. It is a mental representation of oneself that helps in interpreting ambiguous information, setting appropriate goals for oneself, and regulating one's thoughts and emotions.

Self-Concept

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2017). Social cognition: From brains to culture. London: Sage Publications. 

 Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture 3rd Edition

Our self-concept serves as a reference point for inferring the qualities and behaviors of other individuals 

The Self as a Reference Point

Motivations and Self-Regulation

Contains information pertaining to the conceptions of the self:
- Self-Concept
- Self-Esteem
- Relational Selves
- Self-Efficacy
- Self-Guides
- Self-Schema

Various Conceptions of Self

What is produced by cognitive mechanisms: the entire functional property. The self is the conduit for the process and products that give rise to cognition.

The self (self-categorization theory)

A well-developed, positive self-concept is essential for healthy psychological development. Children who possess one typically exhibit more confidence, achieve better results in school, act with greater independence, and show more willingness to try new activities.

Benefits of a Positive Self-Concept

Kenneth and Mamie Clark were influential psychologists who conducted the first psychological research ever used as evidence in a Supreme Court case. Their work focused on the psychological effects of segregation on children.

Kenneth and Mamie Clark

Read the following scenario and analyze the likely differences in Alex's and Ben's self-concepts. Explain how these differences account for their contrasting interpretations of the professor's feedback and their subsequent emotional and motivational responses.

Interpreting Feedback Through the Lens of Self

Children from 2–4 years old display a great increase in social behavior once they have established a self-concept. While they enjoy playing with other children, they initially have difficulty sharing. By 4 years old, they can cooperate, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety.

Early Childhood Social Behavior (2-4 Years)

Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships.

Group Membership Identification

School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others. At this age, children also recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have.

Social Comparison in School-Age Children

Development of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities.

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