•	Effects of mobile phone use on academic performance.

•	Effects of laptop use on reading comprehension and task performance.

Conditions of multitasking outside of class

While studying or doing coursework outside of class, students are more likely to get distracted by laptops and smartphones as they are easily accessible to alternative media sources such as email, Facebook, and Instant Messaging (IM).

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•	In-class multitasking (face-to-face courses and online courses)

•	Multitasking outside of class

•	Perceptions of multitasking and self-regulation

Multitasking effects related to academic performance

May, K.E., Elder, A.D. Efficient, helpful, or distracting? A literature review of media multitasking in relation to academic performance. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 15, 13 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0096-z


Efficient, helpful, or distracting? A literature review of media multitasking in relation to academic performance

•	In-class mobile phone multitasking's effects during course lecture on test performance.

•	The effect of three different in-class texting behaviors on course grade

•	Multitasking activities of various mediums (texting, emailing, Instant Messaging (IM), and Facebook) to three methods of note-taking (paper-and-pencil, word-processing, and natural use of technology condition) during a direct instruction lecture.

•	Multitasking environment (not the note-taking methods).

•	Mobile phone multitasking in a natural classroom setting.

•	The effect of interruptions via Instant Messaging and situational interest in learning during multitasking.

•	Laptop use multitasking.


Conditions of in-class multitasking

Multitasking outside of class

•	Media multitasking harmfully affects students’ learning both in-class and outside of class. 

•	By requiring students to switch tasks may overload their cognitive capacity, preventing them from learning deeper.

•	According to bottleneck theory, incoming information arrives at a processing bottleneck, where only one item can be processed at a time, which results in diminished performance.

•	Under the scattered attention hypothesis, media multitasking disrupts cognitive control by detracting attention from the primary task. Performing multiple tasks at once is extremely time-consuming, resulting in reduced performance due to decreased attentional capacity. Interference, distraction, and errors associated with multitasking reduce performance.


Summaries of media multitasking within and outside of class

Considering students' beliefs and perceptions about multitasking is an important part of understanding multitasking during class. A study shows that there was a significant decline in confidence in participants' ability to effectively multitask in various conditions (e.g. distracted by social media and/or taking notes). While multitasking, students expressed less confidence in their ability to learn, indicating that they were less capable of learning.

Importance of students' perceptions of multitasking and self-regulation

Universities have made it possible for students to enroll in distance learning and/or blended learning programs. In addition, universities offer free wireless internet access to their students, allowing them to participate in multiple technological activities concurrently via their cell phones, laptops, and tablets.

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