- A neurotransmitter based on changes of a single amino acid (acetylcholine, serotonin, and dopamine)
- Monoamine neurotransmitters are amine neurotransmitters 

Amine Neurotransmitters

- A neurotransmitter that is an amino acid (GABA, glycine, glutamate, aspartate)
- In the brain, amino acid neurotransmitters have the most excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters


Amino Acid Neurotransmitters

- Also known as neuropeptide
- Peptides are short chains of between two and fifty amino acids, linked by peptide bonds
- A neurotransmitter that contains short chains of amino acids (galanin, neuropeptide Y, opioid peptides)

Peptide Neurotransmitters

- A soluble gas produced by one neuron that alters the function of another neuron (nitric oxide and carbon monoxide)
- Neurons use certain gas molecules that dissolve in water (soluble gases) to communicate information 

Gas Neurotransmitters

Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. The structure of tryptamine is a shared feature of certain aminergic neuromodulators such as serotonin and psilocybin.

Tryptamine

- Amine Neurotransmitters
- Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
- Peptide Neurotransmitters
- Gas Neurotransmitters

Rutgers University

Grinnell College

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released by the pre-synaptic cell into the synapse that changes electrical activity in the post-synaptic cell.
- Considered endogenous (produced inside the body) substances 
- Binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and either suppresses or enhances post-synaptic cell activity.

Neurotransmitters

There are different types of neurotransmitters with different functions in the human body. Some of the major neurotransmitters include:
- Serotonin (Mood & sleep)
- Glutamate (Memory & learning)
- Dopamine (Mood, sleep, & learning)
- Acetylcholine (Muscle action & memory)
- Beta-endorphin (Pain & pleasure)
- Gamma-aminobutyric acide (Brain function & sleep)
- Norepinephrine (Heart, intestines, & alertness)

Major Neurotransmitters

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

- The substance exists in presynaptic cells
- The presynaptic cell contains the appropriate enzymes to create the substance
- The substance is released in large quantities when action potentials reach the presynaptic axon terminals
- Postsynaptic receptors that recognize the substance exist 
- The substance produces changes in postsynaptic cells
- Blocking release of the substance prevents the presynaptic cell from affecting the
postsynaptic cell

Neurotransmitter Criteria

Neurotransmitter Families

Neuronal receptors are specialized proteins located on a neuron's cell surface, typically on the dendrites, where neurotransmitters attach. The shape of each receptor is specific, allowing it to bind only with particular neurotransmitters, functioning like a lock that only a specific key can open.

Neuronal Receptors

Given the following scenario, explain how the described drug achieves its effect by altering the normal process of communication between nerve cells.

Analyzing a Drug's Effect on Neural Communication

Both hormones and neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that must bind to specific receptors to transmit their signals. However, they differ significantly in their mechanism, scope, and timing. Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream, leading to widespread effects that are slower to manifest but tend to be longer-lasting. In contrast, neurotransmitters are released in close proximity to their target cells, resulting in localized, rapid, and transient effects.

Comparison of Hormones and Neurotransmitters

Adenosine functions as a neurotransmitter that helps promote sleep.

Adenosine's Role in Sleep

Major Neurotransmitters and How They Affect Behavior

AMPA receptors are found on the postsynaptic neuron and are activated when glutamate binds to the neuron. AMPA receptors are permeable to sodium ions.

AMPA Receptors

The biological perspective on psychopathology posits that psychological disorders are rooted in faulty biological processes. This viewpoint, which has gained prominence through scientific advances over recent decades, attributes mental illness to factors such as genetics, neurological abnormalities, and hormonal or biochemical imbalances. This perspective drives research into the genetic, neurological, and chemical underpinnings of various psychological conditions.

Biological Perspective of Psychological Disorders

Analyze the following scenario. Based on the primary functions of the chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells, identify the single messenger most likely responsible for the patient's symptoms and explain your reasoning.

Analyzing Neurotransmitter Function in a Clinical Context

A significant portion of psychological knowledge regarding the specific functions of various neurotransmitters is derived from researching how different psychoactive drugs affect individuals with psychological disorders.

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