- The substance exists in presynaptic cells
- The presynaptic cell contains the appropriate enzymes to create the substance
- The substance is released in large quantities when action potentials reach the presynaptic axon terminals
- Postsynaptic receptors that recognize the substance exist 
- The substance produces changes in postsynaptic cells
- Blocking release of the substance prevents the presynaptic cell from affecting the
postsynaptic cell

Neurotransmitter Criteria

- Amine Neurotransmitters
- Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
- Peptide Neurotransmitters
- Gas Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter Families

Neuronal receptors are specialized proteins located on a neuron's cell surface, typically on the dendrites, where neurotransmitters attach. The shape of each receptor is specific, allowing it to bind only with particular neurotransmitters, functioning like a lock that only a specific key can open.

Neuronal Receptors

Given the following scenario, explain how the described drug achieves its effect by altering the normal process of communication between nerve cells.

Analyzing a Drug's Effect on Neural Communication

Both hormones and neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that must bind to specific receptors to transmit their signals. However, they differ significantly in their mechanism, scope, and timing. Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream, leading to widespread effects that are slower to manifest but tend to be longer-lasting. In contrast, neurotransmitters are released in close proximity to their target cells, resulting in localized, rapid, and transient effects.

Comparison of Hormones and Neurotransmitters

Adenosine functions as a neurotransmitter that helps promote sleep.

Adenosine's Role in Sleep

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released by the pre-synaptic cell into the synapse that changes electrical activity in the post-synaptic cell.
- Considered endogenous (produced inside the body) substances 
- Binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and either suppresses or enhances post-synaptic cell activity.

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- specialized cells
- synapses
- central and peripheral nervous system
- neurotransmitters
- hormones
- brain region and their specialized functions
- brain support systems

Structures of Functional Neural Anatomy

Aspects of neurotransmitters

Terminal buttons are structures at the end of an axon that contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. When an action potential reaches these buttons, it triggers the vesicles to release their neurotransmitters, facilitating communication with other neurons across the synaptic cleft.

Terminal Buttons

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

This is the way that neurons are able to communicate with each other. There is a small area of space between the axon and the dendrite where the information is shared. This can be done through chemical or electrical synapses.

Synapse

Brain regions tend to be involved in a variety of functions even in typically developing people. Deprivation is able to change the function of specific regions through neural plasticity. 

Brain regions and their specific functions

The central and peripheral nervous system span the entire body, with central consisting of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and peripheral using nerves (bundles of neurons) expanding into the body.

Central and Peripheral nervous system

The main types of the neurons (nerve cells) and the glial cells, which come in various forms.
- astrocyte
- microglial cell
- oligodendrocyte
- Schwann cell

Specialized Cells

- Three protective membranes
- Cerebral ventricles 
- Vascular system

Brain support systems

Neurotransmitters

Hormones influence behavior, appetites, emotional levels, and aspects of aging in addition to many other behaviors and development. 


Hormones and the brain

How neurotransmitters form in the brain

The synaptic cleft is a minuscule gap separating two adjacent neurons and serves as a critical site for intercellular communication. When an electrical signal reaches the terminal buttons of an axon, synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into this space. These chemical messengers travel across the synaptic cleft and bind to corresponding, matching receptors on the dendrite of the adjacent neuron.

Synaptic Cleft

Synaptic vesicles are housed in the terminal buttons and contain neurotransmitters.

Synaptic Vesicles

A specific neurotoxin is introduced into a neural pathway. Its sole effect is to prevent the structures at the very end of an axon from releasing their stored chemical messengers. What would be the most immediate and direct consequence of this toxin on the communication process between two connected neurons?

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