In a 1979 study, Raymond Nickerson and Marilyn Adams demonstrated encoding failure by asking Americans to accurately recall the front of a U.S. penny. They found that most people could not do so because they typically only encode enough information to distinguish the penny from other coins, rather than actively encoding its specific details.

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Encoding failure is a form of memory loss that occurs when information is not properly stored in memory from the outset. Essentially, one cannot recall information that was never successfully encoded. This is analogous to attempting to access a book on an e-reader that was never downloaded. This type of failure often happens because we do not pay close attention to details or engage in the effortful processing required to commit information to long-term memory.

Encoding Failure

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

A classic illustration of encoding failure is the common inability to accurately recall the details on the front of a U.S. penny, despite frequent exposure to it. A study by researchers Raymond Nickerson and Marilyn Adams (1979) demonstrated that most people cannot identify a correct penny from a set of options. This occurs because individuals typically only encode the minimal information needed to distinguish a penny from other coins, rather than its specific features, preventing the details from being stored in long-term memory.

Example of Encoding Failure: The U.S. Penny

A common method to demonstrate encoding failure involves presenting individuals with several slightly altered versions of a familiar object, such as a coin, and asking them to identify the correct one. The provided image, showing four different U.S. nickels, exemplifies this type of test. Because people often fail to encode the precise details of such common items, they struggle to distinguish the authentic version from the fakes, highlighting a failure in the initial memory-making process.

Visual Test for Encoding Failure of Coins

An office worker walks past the same fire extinguisher every day for five years. During an emergency drill, they are asked to describe the specific, step-by-step instructions printed on its label. The worker finds they cannot recall any of the steps. What is the most likely reason for this memory lapse?

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