Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a highly influential Austrian neurologist whose foundational work significantly shaped psychology. Fascinated by patients, primarily women, who suffered from 'hysteria' and neurosis—disorders displaying a wide variety of physical and emotional symptoms with no apparent physical cause—Freud theorized that their problems originated from the unconscious mind.

Sigmund Freud

A significant criticism of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theories is that many of their core ideas are not falsifiable. For instance, it is impossible to design an empirical study that could disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego. Despite this lack of falsifiability, Freud's theories remain a staple in introductory psychology due to their profound historical importance in the fields of personality psychology and psychotherapy, forming the foundation for all modern therapeutic approaches.

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory as an Example of a Non-Falsifiable Theory

Sigmund Freud conceptualized the mind using the visual analogy of an iceberg floating in water to illustrate its different states. The visible tip above the water corresponds to the conscious mind, while the section immediately beneath the surface is designated as the preconscious. The largest, deeply submerged region represents the unconscious mind, which houses the id, ego, and superego.

Freud's Iceberg Model of the Mind

Based on the core principles of the psychoanalytic perspective, provide the most likely explanation for the client's recurring behavior described in the case study below.

Interpreting Relationship Patterns

Sigmund Freud's psychosexual development theory is widely considered controversial. This is partly due to its historical context in early 20th-century Vienna, a time of significant sexual repression. A primary scientific criticism of the theory is that it is not empirically verifiable, as it was not designed to be subjected to experimental tests.

Historical Context and Controversy of Freud's Psychosexual Theory

The Frustration-Aggression Theory posits that aggression is a direct result of being obstructed from reaching a significant goal. According to this theory, when an individual's pursuit of an important objective is blocked, a state of frustration arises, which in turn leads to aggressive behavior.

Frustration-Aggression Theory

In Freudian theory, the unconscious mind is a repository of feelings, urges, and memories that exist outside of conscious awareness. Freud posited that these hidden elements significantly influence behavior and that gaining access to the unconscious was crucial for successfully resolving a patient's psychological problems.

Freud's Concept of the Unconscious Mind

Despite their significant and lasting influence on the field of psychology, many of Sigmund Freud's ideas are widely considered to be controversial.

Controversy Surrounding Freud's Theories

Researcher Drew Westen provides a defense against common criticisms of Sigmund Freud's work. He argues that critiques are often misdirected, focusing on Freud's earlier ideas while ignoring his later writings. Westen also contends that critics fail to consider the lasting success and subsequent research support for several of Freud's broad, foundational concepts.

Drew Westen's Defense of Freud's Legacy

Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory is a psychological perspective that focuses on the role of a person's unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping their behavior. This perspective was highly influential and dominated the field of clinical psychology for several decades.

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- Many different theories related to conscious and unconscious reasons and reasoning for why people commit crimes, began with Freudian Psychology

Psychological Theories


Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Psychoanalytic Theory

- People act in response to the feedback from their environment, rewards and punishment dictate ther response.
- 4 types of Rewards and Punishments
   - Positive Rewards
   - Negative Rewards
   - Positive Punishment
   - Negative Punsihment

Behavior Theory (Stimulus-Response Theory)

- Change their response
- There are 4 types of Self Control

Self Control Theory

The general idea of RFT is that the core of human language and cognition is the learned and controlled ability to relate events mutually and in combination with each other in context, and to alter the functions of specific events based on their relations to others.

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