Expectancy and value rating based on EVT can predict student effort on tasks. If a task is deemed as valuable, students will put more effort towards it, which can result in an increased likelihood of using desirable difficulties. Similarly, if a successful outcome is expected, a student will be more motivated to engage in difficult learning strategies. 

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

People behave based on the value that they perceive doing the behavior has to them. It takes into account expectancy (effort), instrumentality (performance) and valence (value/reward).

Expectancy-Valence Theories

Whether or not students decide to engage in learning processes such as desirable difficulties greatly depends on how motivated they are to do so. This motivation can be influenced by a number of factors, including:
- memory of prior experiences
- task outcome expectancy/value
- achievement goal orientation
- affective state
- consequences on grades
- beliefs of competency 
- how the task is framed

Motivation and desirable difficulties: Variables effecting self-regulatory learning processes

Finn, B. (2020). Exploring interactions between motivation and cognition to better shape self-regulated learning. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 9(4), 461-467

Exploring interactions between motivation and cognition to better shape self-regulated learning

Motivation for a goal is not based on the different qualities of a goal, rather the quantity of perceived importance of that goal. 

Expectancy-Valence theories and motivation for a goal

https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2018/10/expectancy-theory/

Expert program management: expectancy theory

Task outcome expectancy/value

A theory of human motivation that posits that the reasons why an individual chooses to participate and exerts effort, are based on self-determined regulations (such as intrinsic motivation). It states there are 3 desires that promote optimal function and growth:
- 1) Autonomy
- 2) Competence
- 3) Relatedness

Self-determination theory (SDT)

Memories of previous success or failure can effect how students approach learning methods such as desirable difficulties. Memories of failure result in decreased willingness to engage in similar challenging tasks in the future, whereas memories of achievement can enhance motivation and make it more likely for students to engage in desirable difficulties.

Memory of prior experiences

Two main types of achievement goals, performance and mastery, can give rise to different types of study behaviors. Students with a mastery goal orientation are focused on learning/developing understanding, and therefore are more likely to engage in desirable difficulties. By contrast, students with a performance goal orientation are more focused on short-term performance, and therefore are less likely to engage in desirable difficulties. 

Achievement goal orientation

Affective states present during learning can influence our motivation and effort we put towards difficult tasks. Feelings of curiosity and interest are related to higher motivation to engage with and put effort towards learning. Feelings of boredom or difficulty, on the other hand, reduce motivation.

Affective state

Students are often less likely to engage in learning processes involving desirable difficulties if the task outcome results in little effect on their grade.

Consequences on grades

If students have low competency beliefs, they may be more inclined to avoid challenging learning practices like desirable difficulties.   

Beliefs of competency

Research has shown that frames affect learning strategy selection, as well as strategies students adopt when faced with a difficult learning task. Depending on how the task is framed, students may be more or less motivated to engage in desirable difficulties.

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