Employees use their smartphones at work for many personal reasons such as keeping in contact with their loved ones such as family and friends, but it can bring benefits and disadvantages in the workplace. 

Personal Smartphone Use at the Workplace

This theory proposes how employees try to balance their work-nonwork domain and it explains how the borders of work-nonwork domain are constructed. 

The Border Theory in the Workplace

Work interaction in the workplace is employees interacting with anything related to work at work whereas non-work interaction is employees interacting with anything not related to work at work. It is ideal to have a balance of both. 

Wayne State University

The ways in which environments are created and run to optimize workplace operations. Workplace design can have notable effects on industrial/organizational concepts such as productivity, work-related motivation, wellbeing, and teamwork/group dynamics. 

Workplace Design

 Patterer, A.S., Yanagida, T., Kühnel, J. and Korunka, C. (2021), Staying in touch, yet expected to be? A diary study on the relationship between personal smartphone use at work and work–nonwork interaction. J Occup Organ Psychol, 94: 735-761. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12348

Staying in touch, yet expected to be? 

Designing and organizing a workplace to optimize worker performance and safety through specific mediums:
1. On-site 
2. Remote (from home or non-designated workspace)

Workplace design medium  

Every organization or group has a set of goals or outcomes that are expected/wanted but often these goals are in conflict with one another. This creates tensions that must be overcome in the workplace design. 

Tensions in Workplace Design

The hardware perspective of workplace design focuses on how workplace design processes that are more physical, architectural, and building aspects of a work place. An example of this would be the decision of an open plan or closed officers. 

Hardware Workplace Design Perspective 

The software perspective of workplace design focuses more on the social aspects of the work place. Examples of this would be interpersonal communication or the establishment of a need for personal space. 

Software Workplace Design Perspective

- For-Profit: organizations in which employers are equity owners, seeking to maximize profit 
- Non-Profit: organizations in which employers are members of boards of directors with duties toward the organization, not legally required to pursue specific goals, no ownership stakes
- Local Government: organizations in which employers are local constituents, exercising rights through electing officials to represent them

Types of Organizations Considering Workplace Design

Humans are drawn to nature, and nature helps us to feel grounded. At work, it is important to have even the smallest connection to nature, and this can help to improve employee well-being. Direct experience of nature, and even indirect experience of nature, experience of spatial features characteristic of the natural environment can help improve employee mental health and help the workplace to be a more productive area.


Connection to Nature at Work

Employees in the hospitality industry, specifically hotel employees, are known to be often under high levels of work-related stress. Backstage employees at hotels had significantly lower well-being than the front stage employees, despite their similar level of demand. This difference in well-being is highly attributed to the exposure to aesthetics. The front stage employees are always surrounded by tasteful aesthetics, meant to make people feel at home, while backstage employees are in a much less pleasing setting. This highlights the importance of a workplace that is well-organized and aesthetically pleasing. Being surrounded by pleasantries while at work can elevate employee well-being, and in turn can improve the company's functionality.

Importance of workplace aesthetics for employee well-being

There are three main ownership structures at an organizational level: for profit, not for profit, and local government. All of these structures have different priorities, and therefore different ways of running their organizations. NP and LG organizations delegate more responsibility to their employees than do FP companies. Additionally, FP organizations are more focused on external motivations like profit margins, while the other structures put more emphasis on intrinsic motivation and passion for the cause. Ownership structure can affect the way a company is run, and the well-being of the employees and the clients. 

Ownership structure's influence on organizational workplace design

Employed persons ages 40 and above, although typically focused on workers nearing retirement.

Older Workers

Job satisfaction describes the degree to which an individual enjoys their job, often characterized as a state of feeling that arises from appraising one's work experiences. While it involves both cognitive (thoughts about work) and affective (feelings about work) components, it is primarily described in terms of affect. Key factors influencing job satisfaction include the nature of the work itself, an individual's personality, their cultural background, workplace design, and management styles.

Job Satisfaction

Workplace bullying refers to when an employee is repeatedly bothered and tormented in their job environment. This could come either from their employer or their coworkers. The three criteria that constitute workplace bullying are:
- repeated negative acts (isolated events do not constitute bullying)
- imbalance of power regarding resources to seek assistance with the bullying
- bullying escalates as time progresses

Workplace Bullying

Organizational factors are internal and external factors to an organization. These factors can have a positive or negative effect on work design, which allows employers to choose different work designs based on those factors. 

Organizational Factors in Work Design

Individual factors are employee characteristics in the workplace that can influence work design. This consists of their personality, values, and confidence or certainty of being able to do tasks efficiently.

Individual Factors in Work Design 

•	Proactive performance

•	Employee’s contentment with the job

•	Amount of effort that employees will put into tasks


Work Design Outcomes 

-  Job Aids
-  Supervisor Support 
-  Physical Work Environment 

Factors of  Workplace Environment that can Affect Employees Performance

 Scharp, Y. S., Bakker, A. B., & Breevaart, K. (2022). Playful work design and employee work engagement: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 134 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2022.103693

Playful work design and employee Involvement

Playful Work Design is applying play in the workplace. Employees are assigned tasks and are given a chance to apply play to their tasks to make them more enjoyable and motivating. 

Playful Work Design 

Workplace mindfulness mainly consisted of two levels which are the organizational level and the individual level. The organizational level is the mindfulness and awareness of the employees as a whole, and the individual level was each employee’s mindfulness and how their personality contributed to it. 



Workplace Mindfulness 

Flexible workplace design is seen differently by different people. Some think that the flexible schedule allows for work to take over a whole day, providing me stress from work, and others feel that allowing flexibility lowers stress because there is not a rigid timeline on workdays

The debate surrounding flexible workplace design

Time pressure and criticism are some situations that affect work-related perfectionism and well-being. Work-related perfectionism changes based on these situations. 

Dynamic idea of work-related perfectionism

Work-related perfectionism is when an individual has big expectations for their performance and the individual can also feel that they are not meeting these expectations. 

Work-related perfectionism 

This theory proposes that people try to acquire “resources” and secure them. In this case, resources are valued possessions and ideas. Being able to not keep these “resources” or no longer having them will cause feelings of stress. 

Conservation of Resources Theory (COR)

Empowering leadership in the workplace is leadership where employees take a part in the leadership and empowers the employees to participate. 

Empowering Leadership in the workplace 

The Regulatory Focus Theory proposes that prevention focus is centered on safeness, and promotion focus is centered on growing at a job and attaining goals. 

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