- Lower self-esteem & self-efficacy 
- Children become overly-needy (ex.  seeking a lot of attention, approval, and direction from others) 
- Utilize more ineffective coping skills
- Express higher levels of narcissism
- Lower levels of emotional well-being (ex. higher levels of anxiety, depression, and stress) 
- Poorer academic adjustment

Disadvantages of Authoritarian Parenting 

A  parenting technique where parents attempt to control the child’s autonomy development through negative emotional interactions, which has been found to be associated with a variety of adverse outcomes, such as:
- Difficulty coping with stressful situations
- The use of avoidant coping behaviors
- Lowered self-worth
- Depression 
 - Anxiety

Psychological Control 

Helicopter parenting is similar to authoritarian parenting and psychological control in that it is high on control and low on granting autonomy. 

However, helicopter parenting is unique as it does not target the emerging adults’ emotional or psychological autonomy. 

Rather, helicopter parenting is characterized by behavioral control and excessive limiting of autonomy that is inconsistent with the age of the emerging adult child.

Helicopter vs. Authoritarian vs. Psychological Control

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver stresses obedience, deemphasizes collaboration and dialogue, and employs strong forms of punishment. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy children.

Trinity College (CT)

Saint Louis University

References from APA for Clinical Psychology

These parents are involved in their child’s life, but consider the child’s perspective and act in ways which encourage the child’s independence and ability to solve their own problems.

Autonomy Supportive Parents

Proposed by Diana Baumrind, this theory suggests that parenting styles are a significant factor in a child's socioemotional development and the formation of a healthy self-concept. The theory outlines four primary styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, each describing a different approach to raising children.

Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Clinical psychology. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/clinical 

American Psychological Association: Clinical Psychology

One’s description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, skills, roles and so forth. Self-concepts contribute to the individual’s sense of identity over time

Self-Concept 

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver encourages a child’s autonomy yet still places certain limitations on behavior.

Authoritative Parenting

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver is accepting and affirmative, makes few demands, and avoids exercising control.

 Permissive Parenting

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver is unsupportive, fails to monitor or limit behavior, and is more attentive to his or her needs than those of the child.

Rejecting–Neglecting Parenting

Clegg, J. W. (2012). Teaching about mental health and illness through the history of the DSM. History of psychology, 15(4), 364. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027249

Teaching about mental health and illness through the history of the DSM

References for Domestic Violence & Mental Health

Authoritarian Parenting

Convenience sampling is a common form of non-probability sampling where researchers study individuals who happen to be physically nearby and are readily willing to participate, such as college students in an introductory psychology course. While this approach is frequently used in psychological research due to its accessibility and efficiency, its main disadvantage is that the resulting sample may not accurately represent the broader population, severely limiting the ability to generalize the findings.

Convenience Sampling

States that individuals have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competency, and relatedness. These needs can either be fulfilled or unfulfilled by environment.

Self-Determination Theoretical Framework

A subscale which assesses one's perceptions of their mother’s/mother figure’s autonomy supportive parenting behaviors. Researchers chose to measure mothers' parenting behaviors  instead of fathers, based on social norms (ex., greater likelihood of the mother being the overly
involved parent). Sample items include: 
- ‘‘My mother encourages me to make my own decisions and take the responsibility for the choices I have made" 
- ‘‘My mother encourages me to deal with any interpersonal problems between myself and my roommate or my friends on my own"

Autonomy Support Subscale 

Parent education was significantly related to autonomy support, life satisfaction and general physical health. Participants whose parents had a 4-year college degree or higher reported:
- Higher autonomy support
- Life satisfaction
- General physical health 
In comparison to those whose parents had a 2-year college degree or less.

Autonomy Support Demographics

Overly involved, protective parents who provide substantial support (e.g.,
financial, emotional, physical health advice) to their emerging adult children, often intervening in their affairs and making decisions for them.

Helicopter Parents

In the permissive parenting style, children have significant control, as parents make few demands and seldom use punishment. These parents are typically very nurturing and loving, often adopting the role of a friend rather than a traditional authority figure.

Permissive Parenting

The uninvolved, or neglectful, style of parenting is characterized by parents who are indifferent and unengaged in their child's life. They make few demands and are unresponsive to their child's needs, often providing only basic necessities. This lack of involvement can stem from parental issues like severe depression, substance abuse, or an intense focus on work.

Uninvolved (Neglectful) Parenting

A child's temperament, which consists of their innate traits influencing thought, behavior, and environmental reactions, can significantly affect the style of parenting they receive. The relationship is bidirectional; just as parenting influences a child, a child's disposition can shape parental responses. For instance, children with easy temperaments may elicit warm and responsive parenting, whereas those with difficult temperaments might provoke irritation or withdrawal from their parents.

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