States that individuals have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competency, and relatedness. These needs can either be fulfilled or unfulfilled by environment.

Self-Determination Theoretical Framework

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver encourages a child’s autonomy yet still places certain limitations on behavior.

Authoritative Parenting

A subscale which assesses one's perceptions of their mother’s/mother figure’s autonomy supportive parenting behaviors. Researchers chose to measure mothers' parenting behaviors  instead of fathers, based on social norms (ex., greater likelihood of the mother being the overly
involved parent). Sample items include: 
- ‘‘My mother encourages me to make my own decisions and take the responsibility for the choices I have made" 
- ‘‘My mother encourages me to deal with any interpersonal problems between myself and my roommate or my friends on my own"

Autonomy Support Subscale 

Parent education was significantly related to autonomy support, life satisfaction and general physical health. Participants whose parents had a 4-year college degree or higher reported:
- Higher autonomy support
- Life satisfaction
- General physical health 
In comparison to those whose parents had a 2-year college degree or less.

Autonomy Support Demographics

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver stresses obedience, deemphasizes collaboration and dialogue, and employs strong forms of punishment. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy children.

Authoritarian Parenting

These parents are involved in their child’s life, but consider the child’s perspective and act in ways which encourage the child’s independence and ability to solve their own problems.

Saint Louis University

In this study, researchers investigate the impact of helicopter parenting on incoming college students' autonomy, and its implications regarding mental and physical health. 

Helicopter parenting and emerging adult self-efficacy: Implications for mental and physical health

Reed, K., Duncan, J. M., Lucier-Greer, M., Fixelle, C., & Ferraro, A. J. (2016). Helicopter parenting and emerging adult self-efficacy: Implications for mental and physical health. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(10), 3136–3149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0466-x

Helicopter Parenting and Emerging Adult Self-Efficacy

Overly involved, protective parents who provide substantial support (e.g.,
financial, emotional, physical health advice) to their emerging adult children, often intervening in their affairs and making decisions for them.

Helicopter Parents

According to adult subjects, helicopter parenting resulted in increased perceptions of:
- Openness
- Guidance
- Emotional support 
in the parent–child relationship

Positive Outcomes of Helicopter Parenting 

Although parents often have positive intentions, helicopter parenting often results in: 
- Lowered family satisfaction 
- A critical family environment 
- Decreased perceptions of well-being 
- Increased levels of psychological adversity (ex. anxiety, stress, depression, and lowered life satisfaction) for the emerging adult child

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