A 9 item Helicopter Parenting subscale used to assess an individuals' perceptions of their mother’s/mother figure’s controlling or ‘‘hovering’’ parenting behaviors. Sample items included: 
- ‘‘My mother regularly wants me to call or text her to let her know where I am"
- ‘‘My mother monitors my diet"

Helicopter Parenting Subscale

Researchers found helicopter parenting to be positively correlated with
general physical health and negatively correlated with self efficacy. They also found its effects to not be directly related to depression, anxiety, and overall life satisfaction, but strongly indirectly correlated to them.

Researchers assert that helicopter parenting behaviors are intrusive and unnecessary, but are not directly predictive of mental health and life satisfaction.
Rather, such parenting behaviors work to indirectly impact mental health, life satisfaction, and physical health. 

The experience of helicopter parenting behaviors deteriorates one’s self-efficacy, which limits ones’ ability to face and persist against challenges or stressors, resulting in poorer well-being.

Conclusions Regarding Helicopter Parenting 

Caucasian/White participants reported lower levels of helicopter parenting behaviors
and higher anxiety compared to minority participants.

Race Differences Regarding Helicopter Parenting 

Overly involved, protective parents who provide substantial support (e.g.,
financial, emotional, physical health advice) to their emerging adult children, often intervening in their affairs and making decisions for them.

Saint Louis University

In this study, researchers investigate the impact of helicopter parenting on incoming college students' autonomy, and its implications regarding mental and physical health. 

Helicopter parenting and emerging adult self-efficacy: Implications for mental and physical health

Proposed by Diana Baumrind, this theory suggests that parenting styles are a significant factor in a child's socioemotional development and the formation of a healthy self-concept. The theory outlines four primary styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved, each describing a different approach to raising children.

Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles

Reed, K., Duncan, J. M., Lucier-Greer, M., Fixelle, C., & Ferraro, A. J. (2016). Helicopter parenting and emerging adult self-efficacy: Implications for mental and physical health. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(10), 3136–3149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0466-x

Helicopter Parenting and Emerging Adult Self-Efficacy

Helicopter Parents

According to adult subjects, helicopter parenting resulted in increased perceptions of:
- Openness
- Guidance
- Emotional support 
in the parent–child relationship

Positive Outcomes of Helicopter Parenting 

Although parents often have positive intentions, helicopter parenting often results in: 
- Lowered family satisfaction 
- A critical family environment 
- Decreased perceptions of well-being 
- Increased levels of psychological adversity (ex. anxiety, stress, depression, and lowered life satisfaction) for the emerging adult child

Negative Outcomes of Helicopter Parenting

These parents are involved in their child’s life, but consider the child’s perspective and act in ways which encourage the child’s independence and ability to solve their own problems.

Autonomy Supportive Parents

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver is unsupportive, fails to monitor or limit behavior, and is more attentive to his or her needs than those of the child.

Rejecting–Neglecting Parenting

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver stresses obedience, deemphasizes collaboration and dialogue, and employs strong forms of punishment. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy children.

Authoritarian Parenting

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver encourages a child’s autonomy yet still places certain limitations on behavior.

Authoritative Parenting

Parenting style in which the parent or caregiver is accepting and affirmative, makes few demands, and avoids exercising control.

 Permissive Parenting

In the permissive parenting style, children have significant control, as parents make few demands and seldom use punishment. These parents are typically very nurturing and loving, often adopting the role of a friend rather than a traditional authority figure.

Permissive Parenting

The uninvolved, or neglectful, style of parenting is characterized by parents who are indifferent and unengaged in their child's life. They make few demands and are unresponsive to their child's needs, often providing only basic necessities. This lack of involvement can stem from parental issues like severe depression, substance abuse, or an intense focus on work.

Uninvolved (Neglectful) Parenting

A child's temperament, which consists of their innate traits influencing thought, behavior, and environmental reactions, can significantly affect the style of parenting they receive. The relationship is bidirectional; just as parenting influences a child, a child's disposition can shape parental responses. For instance, children with easy temperaments may elicit warm and responsive parenting, whereas those with difficult temperaments might provoke irritation or withdrawal from their parents.

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