 The study aimed inspected a path model with technology use, student engagement, self-directed learning and academic performance among undergraduate students. 761 students responded to an online survey comprising three scales: 
- 1) Media and Technology Usage and Attitude Scale (MTUAS)
- 2) Self-Rating Scale of Self-Directed Learning (SRSSDL)
- 3) Student version of Utrecht’s Work Engagement Scale (UWES-S)

The results showed that use of technology has a direct positive relationship with students’ engagement and self-directed learning however, no significant direct effect was found between technology use and academic performance.

Technology use on self-directed learning, student engagement and academic performance

SDT differentiates between autonomous motivation, comprised of intrinsic motivation and well-internalized extrinsic motivation, and controlled motivation, comprised of external motivation and introjected regulation. Environments that feel pressuring. or controlling will decrease intrinsic motivation, while those that are supportive and informational will enhance intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2008).

Automous and Controlled Motivation

The satisfaction of the three needs in SDT (autonomy, competency, relatedness), results in a better mood, vitality, physical systems, and self-esteem. In contrast, activities and contexts that limit these three needs, have a negative impact on an individual (Adie, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2000c).

Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT)

The goal of this experimental study is to examine the effect of choosing versus receiving feedback on performance and learning. Additionally, students' reported enjoyment of the task is assessed. 

There were three research questions in this study:
1) "Does critical feedback correlate with performance outcomes by condition?"
2) "Are there outcome differences between choosing and receiving feedback?"
3) "Are there enjoyment differences between choosing and receiving feedback?" (Cutumisu, 2016).

The Effect of Choosing Versus Receiving Feedback on College Students' Performance - Goal of Study

Giving users options to do things instead of doing one thing in one predetermined way


Autonomy in UX Products 

An individuals sense of control over their decisions, actions and will. An individuals desire for autonomy is appeased more so when there are choices given to the individual or they are able to take part in activities that are of personal interest/value (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). 

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Claremont Graduate University

The need for control, even if unhappy with it, is a strong social motive for humans. Humans desire the autonomy to pursue what they want and the competence to make things happen. Bruce McEwen found that the lowest members in social hierarchies (with the least amount of control over their situation) were the most likely to suffer stress-related illnesses and die early. Humans often act and perceive that they have control to compensate for when we don't.

Control (as social motive)

A theory of human motivation that posits that the reasons why an individual chooses to participate and exerts effort, are based on self-determined regulations (such as intrinsic motivation). It states there are 3 desires that promote optimal function and growth:
- 1) Autonomy
- 2) Competence
- 3) Relatedness

Self-determination theory (SDT)

Peng, W., Lin, J. H., Pfeiffer, K. A., & Winn, B. (2012). Need satisfaction supportive game features as motivational determinants: An experimental study of a self-determination theory guided exergame. Media Psychology, 15(2), 175-196.

Need satisfaction supportive game features as motivational determinants: An experimental study of a self-determination theory guided exergame

The need an individual has for being able to produce their desired outcome and avoid undesired ones. It also covers the need for being effective/successful in the face of a challenge (Ryan et al., 2006).

Competency in SDT

Autonomy in SDT

People who feel they are lacking or limited in personal control will seek out other forms of structure.

Compensatory-control theory

A positive association was found between participants who exhibited more intense conservatism and greater need for control.

Link between need for structure and conservatism

The reasons why a person exerts effort exists a continuum of self-determined behavioral regulations, ranging from the most self-determined reasons to the least (Deci & Ryan 1985, Ryan & Deci, 2000b):
- Most self-determined form of regulation: intrinsic motivation
- Middle: extrinsic motivation
- Least self-determined form of regulation: motivation 

The continuum of Self-determined regulation

-  Need satisfaction supportive game features as motivational determinants: An experimental study of a self-determination theory guided exergame (Peng et al., 2012)

-  Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation (Vansteenkiste, Lens &  Deci, 2006)

-  The role of self-determination theory in explaining teachers’ motivation to continue to use e-learning technology (Halvari, Kristiansen & Flaata, 2009)

-   Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom; Applying self-determination theory to educational practice (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009)

- Facilitating Optimal Motivation and Psychological Well-Being Across Life's Domains (Deci & Ryan, 2008)

References related to SDT

This article looks at the application of self-determination theory into the format of online learning. It goes into detail about what the theory is as well as the idea that certain types of motivation, such as intrinsic motivation, may have better outcomes compared to extrinsic or no motivation. To test this idea, the research study in this article looks at how online students may be motivated by their teachers in ways that encourage intrinsic motivation. The results suggest that, when the teachers were able to support the students' autonomy and competency, it positively affected how the students perceived their own autonomy, competency, and relatedness as a result. The students gained a higher amount of self-determination in the end. 

Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory

Peng et al. (2012) recognized that there had not been much prior study done on how game features affect an individuals satisfaction of basic needs and conducted a study to analyze what affect different features would have. 

Intro to exergame features influencing SDT desires (Peng et al. 2012) 

Focuses on the need of an individual to be connected to others/be involved in a social environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Ryan et al., 2006).

Relatedness in SDT

This study analyzed the effectiveness and presence of SDT in online learning environments through an SEM analysis

SDT on learning outcomes in online learning environments

A variety of factors affect self-regulation, which makes it difficult to determin exactly what combination of traits makes a person successful. Some aspects are 
- high intrinsic motivation
- perceived competence (SDT)
- perceived autonomy (SDT)
- social relatedness, i.e. willingness to ask for support (SDT)
- good Self Regulated Learning Strategies
- low passive procrastination levels

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