One aspect of looking at online learning that the article points out is that, when considering motivation theories in educational frameworks, applying it in face-to-face learning classrooms will lead to different results compared to using it in online learning. Given the different methods and aspects of both kinds of learning (such as communication, flexibility), how a student is motivated in online courses requires different research, which leads to the study in this article.

Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory- Motivation Fact

One of the findings of the article suggests that, when it comes to online learning, what we perceive as teacher's support of their students requires the right approach to actually help them. A teacher can interact and communicate with their students but not addressing their actual needs, such as their perception of self-determination in the class, can have negative effects compared to not supporting them at all. The article posits that a teacher who can encourage this intrinsic motivation of self-determination can actually address their students' needs and give them the support that actually benefits them.

Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory- Teacher Support

Finally, one of the most important aspects for teachers to keep in mind as they take into account student motivation is that students will all kinds of motivation, whether intrinsic or extrinsic. These reasons must be kept in mind to provide the right kind of assistance for them, to address potential anxiety. From there, the teacher can lean towards encouraging the student's self-determination so that students can enjoy using the online learning framework. 

Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory- Teaching Suggestion

Chen, K., & Jang, S. (2010). Motivation in online learning: Testing a model of self-determination theory. Comput. Hum. Behav., 26, 741-752.
DOI:10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.011

Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory

This is one chapter of a handbook that talks about self-determination research. It focuses on how the concept of autonomy and encouraging other aspects of SDT can have positive effects on students' learning. It goes into detail about what teachers can do to encourage autonomy and discusses the possibility that teachers can change their teaching style to focus on intrinsic motivation and student autonomy. It goes into detail about why teachers can be controlling as well. The chapter also discusses the importance of students' autonomy, namely that it can help students feel more competent when they are given a chance to give answers themselves and do independent work.

Self-Determination Theory Applied to Educational Settings

This is a chapter of a textbook ("Handbook of Research on Student Engagement") that describes the concept of student engagement, which is how involved a student is in their learning, and how it applies to self-determination theory. There are many different concepts discussed, ranging from different motivational theories to why student engagement is important in education. One of the main ideas that is worth looking into regarding SDT is the idea that the intrinsic motivation a student has can affect their learning environment positively so that it responds to the student to encourage these intrinsic motivations (teacher feedback, interesting learning assignments) which in turn increases student engagement so that they are actively involved and immersed in the class. It is a cyclical relationship that, if done positively, can lead to a better learning experience for teacher and students according to the principles of SDT.

A Self-Determination Theory Perspective on Student Engagement

This article looks at the application of self-determination theory into the format of online learning. It goes into detail about what the theory is as well as the idea that certain types of motivation, such as intrinsic motivation, may have better outcomes compared to extrinsic or no motivation. To test this idea, the research study in this article looks at how online students may be motivated by their teachers in ways that encourage intrinsic motivation. The results suggest that, when the teachers were able to support the students' autonomy and competency, it positively affected how the students perceived their own autonomy, competency, and relatedness as a result. The students gained a higher amount of self-determination in the end. 

University of California, Berkeley

San Jose State University

A theory of human motivation that posits that the reasons why an individual chooses to participate and exerts effort, are based on self-determined regulations (such as intrinsic motivation). It states there are 3 desires that promote optimal function and growth:
- 1) Autonomy
- 2) Competence
- 3) Relatedness

Self-determination theory (SDT)

Online learning refers to any kind of education or learning effort that takes place over the internet.

Online Learning 

The reasons why a person exerts effort exists a continuum of self-determined behavioral regulations, ranging from the most self-determined reasons to the least (Deci & Ryan 1985, Ryan & Deci, 2000b):
- Most self-determined form of regulation: intrinsic motivation
- Middle: extrinsic motivation
- Least self-determined form of regulation: motivation 

The continuum of Self-determined regulation

-  Need satisfaction supportive game features as motivational determinants: An experimental study of a self-determination theory guided exergame (Peng et al., 2012)

-  Intrinsic versus extrinsic goal contents in self-determination theory: Another look at the quality of academic motivation (Vansteenkiste, Lens &  Deci, 2006)

-  The role of self-determination theory in explaining teachers’ motivation to continue to use e-learning technology (Halvari, Kristiansen & Flaata, 2009)

-   Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom; Applying self-determination theory to educational practice (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009)

- Facilitating Optimal Motivation and Psychological Well-Being Across Life's Domains (Deci & Ryan, 2008)

References related to SDT

Peng et al. (2012) recognized that there had not been much prior study done on how game features affect an individuals satisfaction of basic needs and conducted a study to analyze what affect different features would have. 

Intro to exergame features influencing SDT desires (Peng et al. 2012) 

The need an individual has for being able to produce their desired outcome and avoid undesired ones. It also covers the need for being effective/successful in the face of a challenge (Ryan et al., 2006).

Competency in SDT

An individuals sense of control over their decisions, actions and will. An individuals desire for autonomy is appeased more so when there are choices given to the individual or they are able to take part in activities that are of personal interest/value (Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). 

Autonomy in SDT

Focuses on the need of an individual to be connected to others/be involved in a social environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Ryan et al., 2006).

Relatedness in SDT

This study analyzed the effectiveness and presence of SDT in online learning environments through an SEM analysis

SDT on learning outcomes in online learning environments

A variety of factors affect self-regulation, which makes it difficult to determin exactly what combination of traits makes a person successful. Some aspects are 
- high intrinsic motivation
- perceived competence (SDT)
- perceived autonomy (SDT)
- social relatedness, i.e. willingness to ask for support (SDT)
- good Self Regulated Learning Strategies
- low passive procrastination levels

Successful self-regulation in distanced learning

Using OLS and regression models, Xu & Jaggars found that students' performance and persistence in online courses were overall worse in comparison to in-person classes. Data analysis of students enrolled at Washington State (p=40,000) found that:
- Previously existing disparities and achievement gaps found between student subgroups were exacerbated; students that were male, African American, or low-performing would continue to perform worse in an online setting.
- The degree of difference in performance varied by major, with some majors (i.e English) being more negatively impacted by being online when compared to other majors (i.e natural sciences)

Online vs In-Person Learning - Xu & Jaggars

Other countries have various ways that they have adapted to the Covid-19 pandemic by using online learning in education.

Differences in online learning between countries

References for online learning can be found in the child nodes below

References for Online Learning

The COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how students were educated. Notable classes moved to an online format and schools adopted many policies to compensate (e.g., grading, testing, etc.)

The Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Education

- Collaborative writing refers to the creation of a document through the combined efforts of more than one author. The scope of CW involves not just the writing process, but also challenges such as group coordination, team formation, and planning.
- Online collaborative writing poses further challenges due to poorer quality of communication and social awareness in online environments.

Online Collaborative Writing

When it comes to using online learning, especially during the pandemic, one aspect that often comes up as an advantage in using it is the idea that it provides flexibility for the student and teacher. No matter the time or location, online learning ensures that education can occur as long as there is access to the technology. However, there is the idea that normal methods of learning are not as effective, such as exams, assessments, and teaching complex topics, because of several factors. The fact that the online platform has yet to provide a suitable method that properly captures being able to take an assessment the way it was possible for in-person learning is an issue. There also appears to be concern over how to effectively communicate online, as a commonly cited problem is the feeling of isolation in communication despite the accessibility of online classes and lectures. This suggests that students need to get used to the idea of arranging communication over online platforms and apps so that the feeling of isolation becomes less so. Online learning has yet to adapt to all aspects of in-person education, which is why blended learning seems to be popular. However, in the time of the pandemic, blended learning may not be as viable as it otherwise might be.

Online Learning During COVID: Advantages and Disadvantages

Different methods of online learning did not significantly affect the student learning outcomes. 13 different methods were analyzed as potential causes of variation when making online learning more effective than in-person learning, including hybrid classrooms and allowing more time per tasks. The other 11 were not significant variables. However, the number of studies that included information about this was too small to make any solid conclusions. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effects of Different Online Media on Learning

On the whole, students with online instruction who spent more time on task than students with in-person instruction did better than students with in-person instruction. When in-person students spent more time on task than online students, they performed better than the online students, but not to the extent of the opposite circumstance. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effects of Spending Time on Task for Online and In-person Students

Online learning appears to work for different material and learner types. It is more effective for college undergraduate students than college graduate students and professionals. The data seem to suggest that it also works for K-12, but there is not enough data to be confident about that conclusion. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Online Learning with Different Material and Learner Types

Hybrid instruction is generally preferred to online instruction and in-person instruction. Note that the studies did not attempt to make sure the curricula, learning media, and learning time were comparable, so advantages may not be due to media of instruction. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Student Preferences of Hybrid Instruction vs Online and In-person Instruction

Students who did at least part of their class through online instruction tended to perform better than those who took the same class entirely in person. Note that online vs in-person was not the only difference in these classes (e.g., the amount of time spent on task), so the advantages of online instruction may have come from somewhere other than the medium of instruction. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Partial Online Instruction Can Lead to Better Performance

Learning was more effective for both online and in-person classes when curriculum materials and methods of instruction were more varied. Analysts identified 6 methodologies that could account for the effects, including sample size, type of knowledge tested, strength of study design, unit of assignment to condition, instructor equivalence across conditions, and equivalence of curriculum and instructional approach across conditions.

Varied Materials and Instruction Media Are Beneficial

With online instruction, more media (like videos or quizzes) does not enhance learning. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effects of More Media on Learning

1. Let the students have control over their interactions with the class media and making them reflect on their learning.

Suggestions to Improve Online Learning

Users are more likely to have a strong intention to continue e-learning when they demonstrate satisfaction with the system. 

Satisfaction stems from:
- The perceived usefulness of the system and its perceived ease of use

- Continued confirmation that the system is useful

User Retention in Online Learning Communities

There are key factors that influence perceived social presence in online learning. Social presence influences online user behavior.


Social Presence in Online Learning

-Distance learning-learning that is used for people who are physically distant from one another (and can also include learning that occurs at different times)
-E-learning-a type of distance learning-defined as "strictly being accessible using technological tools that are either web-based, web-distributed, or web-capable"
-Online learning-more recent and improved version of distance learning-"described by most authors as access to learning experiences via the use of some technology"

Distinctions between online learning, distance learning and E-learning 

Online learning communities are peer-to-peer learning environments conducted through the internet. 

Online learning communities

Online distance learning is often viewed positively for the convenience and flexibility it provides, but its educational quality is frequently questioned when compared to traditional in-person learning. Key quality concerns involve the usability of online platforms, the level of academic rigor, and issues such as academic dishonesty. Studies indicate that the quality of online education can be improved when teachers provide immediate, specific feedback, offer technical assistance to make platforms easier to use, and actively encourage interaction among students.

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