Each are influenced by social presence perception:
- Students’ behavior
- Satisfaction: the perception of enjoyment and accomplishment in the learning environment 
- Enjoyment: an intrinsic motivation, “the degree to which performing an activity is perceived as providing pleasure and joy in it’s own right aside from performance consequences”
- Their attitude toward the website


Key Consequences of Social Presence in MOOCs

- Instructor factors: self-presentation, extraversion
- Student factors: attention, perceived control, perceived responsiveness, perceived synchronicity 
- Website factors: media richness


Key Antecedents Influencing Social presence in MOOCs 


Method:
- This study used a web based survey to validate study constructs (survey monkey) and asked participants if they had ever been in a MOOC and which websites they frequented in the duration of the course
- Measured on a 1-7 Likert scale (1-strongly disagree to 7- strongly agree)
- Utilized a convenience sample
- Controlled variable is gender, experience with MOOCs, and the MOOCs website name and reputation
- T-tests for data analysis and Partial Least Squares for hypothesis testing

Findings:
- The empirical results support all of the hypotheses in the study.


Social presence antecedents research, methodology, & findings

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused schools to shut down, forcing many students to continue their education via online learning. As a result, the social aspect of education was virtually eliminated, leaving students feeling alone in their online courses. To solve this, different video technologies can be used to aid instruction. This study looks at the different instructional strategies for increasing the social presence of students and instructors.

Improving online social presence through asynchronous video

There are key factors that influence perceived social presence in online learning. Social presence influences online user behavior.


University of California, Davis

San Jose State University

New York University

- “the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as ‘real people’” (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes, & Vaughan, 2001). 
Social Presence is evident through three indicators: affect, open communication and group cohesion. 
- "the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships.” (Williams, Short, Christie, 1976)
- “the degree to which a person is perceived as a ‘real person’ in
mediated communication" (Gunawardena, 1995)
- "definitions of social presence tend to lie on a continuum where a focus on interpersonal emotional connection between communicators is on one end and a focus on if someone is perceived as being ‘present’, ‘there’ or ‘real’ at the other end" (Lowenthal, 2011)

Social Presence 

Online learning refers to any kind of education or learning effort that takes place over the internet.

Online Learning 

Imlawi, J. M. (2018). Social Presence Antecedents and Consequences in Massive Open Online Courses. International Business Research (Toronto), 11(4), 32. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v11n4p32 

Social Presence Antecedents and Consequences in Massive Open Online Courses

iSALT Team, "Social Presence Theory" (2014). iSALT Resources: Theories, Concepts, and Measures. Paper 2.
http://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/isalt_resources/2

Social Presence Theory

linked to task motivation and persistence

Affect

Open communication

Social Presence in Online Learning

-  how learners perceive psychological distance
-  what are the factors affecting learners’ perceptions of psychological distance
-  how learners’ perceptions of distance affect their learning
-  what are the effective strategies to minimize psychological distance

Psychological Aspects of Distance

This article looks at the application of self-determination theory into the format of online learning. It goes into detail about what the theory is as well as the idea that certain types of motivation, such as intrinsic motivation, may have better outcomes compared to extrinsic or no motivation. To test this idea, the research study in this article looks at how online students may be motivated by their teachers in ways that encourage intrinsic motivation. The results suggest that, when the teachers were able to support the students' autonomy and competency, it positively affected how the students perceived their own autonomy, competency, and relatedness as a result. The students gained a higher amount of self-determination in the end. 

Motivation in Online Learning: Testing a Model of Self-Determination Theory

Using OLS and regression models, Xu & Jaggars found that students' performance and persistence in online courses were overall worse in comparison to in-person classes. Data analysis of students enrolled at Washington State (p=40,000) found that:
- Previously existing disparities and achievement gaps found between student subgroups were exacerbated; students that were male, African American, or low-performing would continue to perform worse in an online setting.
- The degree of difference in performance varied by major, with some majors (i.e English) being more negatively impacted by being online when compared to other majors (i.e natural sciences)

Online vs In-Person Learning - Xu & Jaggars

Other countries have various ways that they have adapted to the Covid-19 pandemic by using online learning in education.

Differences in online learning between countries

References for online learning can be found in the child nodes below

References for Online Learning

The COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how students were educated. Notable classes moved to an online format and schools adopted many policies to compensate (e.g., grading, testing, etc.)

The Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Education

- Collaborative writing refers to the creation of a document through the combined efforts of more than one author. The scope of CW involves not just the writing process, but also challenges such as group coordination, team formation, and planning.
- Online collaborative writing poses further challenges due to poorer quality of communication and social awareness in online environments.

Online Collaborative Writing

When it comes to using online learning, especially during the pandemic, one aspect that often comes up as an advantage in using it is the idea that it provides flexibility for the student and teacher. No matter the time or location, online learning ensures that education can occur as long as there is access to the technology. However, there is the idea that normal methods of learning are not as effective, such as exams, assessments, and teaching complex topics, because of several factors. The fact that the online platform has yet to provide a suitable method that properly captures being able to take an assessment the way it was possible for in-person learning is an issue. There also appears to be concern over how to effectively communicate online, as a commonly cited problem is the feeling of isolation in communication despite the accessibility of online classes and lectures. This suggests that students need to get used to the idea of arranging communication over online platforms and apps so that the feeling of isolation becomes less so. Online learning has yet to adapt to all aspects of in-person education, which is why blended learning seems to be popular. However, in the time of the pandemic, blended learning may not be as viable as it otherwise might be.

Online Learning During COVID: Advantages and Disadvantages

Different methods of online learning did not significantly affect the student learning outcomes. 13 different methods were analyzed as potential causes of variation when making online learning more effective than in-person learning, including hybrid classrooms and allowing more time per tasks. The other 11 were not significant variables. However, the number of studies that included information about this was too small to make any solid conclusions. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effects of Different Online Media on Learning

On the whole, students with online instruction who spent more time on task than students with in-person instruction did better than students with in-person instruction. When in-person students spent more time on task than online students, they performed better than the online students, but not to the extent of the opposite circumstance. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effects of Spending Time on Task for Online and In-person Students

Online learning appears to work for different material and learner types. It is more effective for college undergraduate students than college graduate students and professionals. The data seem to suggest that it also works for K-12, but there is not enough data to be confident about that conclusion. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Online Learning with Different Material and Learner Types

Hybrid instruction is generally preferred to online instruction and in-person instruction. Note that the studies did not attempt to make sure the curricula, learning media, and learning time were comparable, so advantages may not be due to media of instruction. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Student Preferences of Hybrid Instruction vs Online and In-person Instruction

Students who did at least part of their class through online instruction tended to perform better than those who took the same class entirely in person. Note that online vs in-person was not the only difference in these classes (e.g., the amount of time spent on task), so the advantages of online instruction may have come from somewhere other than the medium of instruction. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Partial Online Instruction Can Lead to Better Performance

Learning was more effective for both online and in-person classes when curriculum materials and methods of instruction were more varied. Analysts identified 6 methodologies that could account for the effects, including sample size, type of knowledge tested, strength of study design, unit of assignment to condition, instructor equivalence across conditions, and equivalence of curriculum and instructional approach across conditions.

Varied Materials and Instruction Media Are Beneficial

With online instruction, more media (like videos or quizzes) does not enhance learning. These data are from before the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effects of More Media on Learning

1. Let the students have control over their interactions with the class media and making them reflect on their learning.

Suggestions to Improve Online Learning

Users are more likely to have a strong intention to continue e-learning when they demonstrate satisfaction with the system. 

Satisfaction stems from:
- The perceived usefulness of the system and its perceived ease of use

- Continued confirmation that the system is useful

User Retention in Online Learning Communities

-Distance learning-learning that is used for people who are physically distant from one another (and can also include learning that occurs at different times)
-E-learning-a type of distance learning-defined as "strictly being accessible using technological tools that are either web-based, web-distributed, or web-capable"
-Online learning-more recent and improved version of distance learning-"described by most authors as access to learning experiences via the use of some technology"

Distinctions between online learning, distance learning and E-learning 

Online learning communities are peer-to-peer learning environments conducted through the internet. 

Online learning communities

Online distance learning is often viewed positively for the convenience and flexibility it provides, but its educational quality is frequently questioned when compared to traditional in-person learning. Key quality concerns involve the usability of online platforms, the level of academic rigor, and issues such as academic dishonesty. Studies indicate that the quality of online education can be improved when teachers provide immediate, specific feedback, offer technical assistance to make platforms easier to use, and actively encourage interaction among students.

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