linked to task motivation and persistence

Affect

Open communication

There are key factors that influence perceived social presence in online learning. Social presence influences online user behavior.


Social Presence in Online Learning

-  how learners perceive psychological distance
-  what are the factors affecting learners’ perceptions of psychological distance
-  how learners’ perceptions of distance affect their learning
-  what are the effective strategies to minimize psychological distance

Psychological Aspects of Distance

- “the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as ‘real people’” (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes, & Vaughan, 2001). 
Social Presence is evident through three indicators: affect, open communication and group cohesion. 
- "the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships.” (Williams, Short, Christie, 1976)
- “the degree to which a person is perceived as a ‘real person’ in
mediated communication" (Gunawardena, 1995)
- "definitions of social presence tend to lie on a continuum where a focus on interpersonal emotional connection between communicators is on one end and a focus on if someone is perceived as being ‘present’, ‘there’ or ‘real’ at the other end" (Lowenthal, 2011)

University of California, Davis

New York University

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

The intersecting three-presence framework, consisting of Social, Teaching and Cognitive Presences, that represented all the important activities in an educational experience.  

Community of Inquiry Framework

- Self-categorization theory
- Social Motives
- Social Identity Theory
- Honneth's theory of social recognition
- Social proof 
- Autism as "mind-blindness"
- Social presence theory 
- Terror management theory
- Rule of 150
- Attribution theory
- Emotion
- Social Influence
- Situationism
- Social roles and Social Role Theory
- Social norms
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- Attitudes and Persuasion
- Aggression
- Prosocial behavior

Theories and Focuses of Social psychology

iSALT Team, "Social Presence Theory" (2014). iSALT Resources: Theories, Concepts, and Measures. Paper 2.
http://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/isalt_resources/2

Social Presence Theory

Joo, Y. J., Lim, K. Y., & Kim, E. K. (2011). Online university students satisfaction and persistence: Examining perceived level of presence, usefulness and ease of use as predictors in a structural model. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1654-1664. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.02.008

Online university students satisfaction and persistence: Examining perceived level of presence, usefulness and ease of use as predictors in a structural model

Imlawi, J. M. (2018). Social Presence Antecedents and Consequences in Massive Open Online Courses. International Business Research (Toronto), 11(4), 32. https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v11n4p32 

Social Presence Antecedents and Consequences in Massive Open Online Courses

Kear, K., Chetwynd, F., &amp; Jefferis, H. (2014). Social presence in online learning communities: The role of personal profiles. Research in Learning Technology, 22. doi:10.3402/rlt.v22.19710

Social presence in online learning communities: the role of personal profiles 

Social Presence 

 “the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educational worthwhile learning outcomes” (Garrison et al., 2001).
 It consists of three categories: design and organization, facilitating discourse and direct instruction.

Teaching Presence

“the extent to which the participants in any particular configuration of a community of inquiry are able to construct meaning through sustained communication.” (Garrison et al., 2001). 
Cognitive Presence is based on the Practical Inquiry model (Garrison et al., 1999). 

Cognitive Presence 

-  Learner Presence
-  Emotional Presence
-  Agency Presence 
-  Metacognition

-  All four additional presences contain the elements of self-regulation, motivation and learning strategies. 
(They may eventually converge into a single new presence, or be relegated to the exogenous variables.)

Other Presences to Expand the COI

Learners' satisfaction and persistence are two major indicators of success in an online learning course. The more students are satisfied with their learning, the more they are willing to continue said learning. The community inquiry framework (COI) is a robust pedagogical model to try to resolve this concern. This study aims to integrate perceived presence (teacher, social, and cognitive) and perceived technology usefulness to identify relationships among these variables.

Online university students' satisfaction and persistence

Formal learning communities try to restructure university curricula to combat structural barriers to excelling in education by emphasizing interactions between students, faculty, and staff. 

The following are basic characteristics of learning communities:

1. Organizing students and faculty into smaller groups
2. Encouraging integration of the curriculum
3. Helping students establish academic and social support networks
4. Providing a setting for students to be socialized to the expectations of college
5. Bringing faculty together in more meaningful ways
6. Focusing faculty and students on learning outcomes
7. Providing a setting for community-based delivery of academic support programs

Formal Learning Community

- Teaching presence had a significant effect on both social and cognitive presence (consistent with prior research)
- Social presence had a significant effect on cognitive presence 
- Social presence had a mediating effect between teaching and cognitive presence 
- teaching/cognitive presence and perceived usefulness showed positive effects on learner satisfaction
- Learner satisfaction significantly predicted persistence 
- Presence variable and perceived usefulness failed to directly predict persistence (in contrast to prior research) 


Levels of presence and effects on usefulness and satisfaction

It is an ordinary and normal experience to reduce experience from "I" and "me" to "us" and "we". The self then becomes defined in terms of other persons, instead of a singular, experiencing self. Sometimes the self identifies almost (if not) entirely with a class against another and is subjectively experienced through a social collective.

Self-categorization theory (Turner, Hoggs, Oakes, Reicher, and Wetherell 1987)

- 1) Love: recognition through relationships of strong emotional attachment from a small number of people (lovers, family, friends)

- 2) Rights: recognition from the respect that political, social and civil rights (abilities) provide through their enabling of an individual

- 3) Solidarity: recognition from the social defined worth of an individuals characteristics 

Axel Honneth's Theory of Recognition (a threefold conceptualization of intersubjective recognition)

To cope with the awareness of mortality that continually exists in human cognition, and more so when threatened, one sustains faith in worldviews and self-esteem to manage the fear and anxiety. Humans' fundamental systems are designed for survival with a flight or fight arousal activation and cognitive awareness that potential danger is omnipresent, unpredictable, and unescapable.  Terror management theory (TMT) posits that ancient civilizations gravitated toward symbolism and meaning, order, documentation, and cultural growth to manage this constant terror. Early in childhood, one is taught the specific social behaviors that illicit good feelings and security, and other unwanted behaviors make the world seem scary and uncertain. Psychological security becomes based on the immortality of familial, cultural, and religious groups. Moreover, the fear of mortality drives in-group/out-group biases and self-serving behavior.

Terror Management Theory

Humans have evolved to have up to 150 stable, meaningful relationships at a time (the growth of the neocortex is likely responsible). 150 is also the approximately optimal size for a human community. Humans can remember important information of up to 150 group members (such as which are likely cheaters and which are most likely to return a favor). Early tribes often splintered into different sects shortly after suprassing 150 members.

Rule of 150

It describes how our most important associations with religious, political, national, and occupational groups provide us with a sense of belonging, worth and shapes our thinking of people in/outside of these groups. Developed by Henri Tajfel, a polish jew who ended up in a Nazi prisoner of war camp during WWII. 

Social Identity Theory

In addition to physical needs for survival, humans also have social motives that shape our thinking, relationships, and emotions. When our motives are fulfilled we will tend to feel good, and when they are not, we will tend to feel stressed or unhappy. Some major social motives are:
- belonging
- predicting others' behavior accurately
- control
- self-enhancement (a need to matter)
- trust

Social motives

An emotion is a subjective state of being, often described as a feeling. It is typically an intense, affective state that occurs consciously and intentionally in response to a specific experience. Emotions arise from the interplay of four key components: a subjective experience, an outward expression, a cognitive appraisal of the situation, and physiological responses.

Emotion

People have two emotional systems: 
- Disposition system : governs excitement and enthusiasm
- Surveillance system : governs anxiety, stress and fear

Affective Intelligence Theory

standing by previous conclusions even if new evidence shows we should not

Belief Perseverance 

Attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors. In social psychology, this often involves determining whether a behavior is due to internal factors, such as personality and character (a dispositional attribution), or external factors, such as the environment and social context (a situational attribution).

Attribution

Refer to shared socially determined consensual expectation regarding appropriate and acceptable behavior in a given context. Social norms carry an evaluative quality, leading to negative judgment for those who violate them without a valid explanation.

Social Norms

In social psychology, prejudice refers to the attitudes and feelings held toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular social group. While these attitudes are often negative and problematic, they can also be positive, such as having favorable feelings for people who belong to a group one identifies with.

Prejudice in Social Psychology

An attitude is a person's evaluation of an object, an idea, or another person. These evaluations can be either positive or negative (favorable or unfavorable) and are comprised of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.

Attitude

Situationism is the perspective, commonly held by social psychologists, that an individual's behavior is dictated by their immediate environment and surrounding circumstances. This view emphasizes external, situational factors over internal traits.

Situationism

Which theory in social psychology explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into groups, influencing their behavior and attitudes?

Which theory in social psychology focuses on the idea that people are motivated to maintain a positive self-concept and social identity?

Which theory in social psychology suggests that people conform to the behavior of others in order to be accepted or liked by them?

Which theory in social psychology explains how individuals' behaviors are influenced by their roles within a group or society?

The presence of other people, whether real or perceived, significantly impacts an individual's actions, thoughts, and feelings. A core principle in social psychology is that individuals often adapt their behavior to conform to the social situation they are in. This adjustment is particularly evident when a person is in a new or uncertain environment, where they look to others for cues on how to act.

Influence of Social Presence on Behavior

A primary driver of human behavior is the motivation to feel good about oneself and maintain a positive self-esteem. People generally view themselves as good and above average on desirable traits. When behavior, attitudes, or beliefs threaten this positive self-image, it can trigger psychological processes aimed at protecting self-esteem.

Motivation to Maintain Positive Self-Esteem

Persuasion and social influence constitute a major subfield within social psychology. Persuasion, in particular, is one of the most heavily researched topics in the discipline, providing a wealth of information on how individuals can be influenced by others.

Persuasion and Social Influence as a Field of Study

Aggression is defined as any behavior intended to cause harm or pain to another person. It is a core topic in social psychology, encompassing a range of actions with different underlying motivations.

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