It is an ordinary and normal experience to reduce experience from "I" and "me" to "us" and "we". The self then becomes defined in terms of other persons, instead of a singular, experiencing self. Sometimes the self identifies almost (if not) entirely with a class against another and is subjectively experienced through a social collective.

Self-categorization theory (Turner, Hoggs, Oakes, Reicher, and Wetherell 1987)

- 1) Love: recognition through relationships of strong emotional attachment from a small number of people (lovers, family, friends)

- 2) Rights: recognition from the respect that political, social and civil rights (abilities) provide through their enabling of an individual

- 3) Solidarity: recognition from the social defined worth of an individuals characteristics 

Axel Honneth's Theory of Recognition (a threefold conceptualization of intersubjective recognition)

- “the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as ‘real people’” (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes, & Vaughan, 2001). 
Social Presence is evident through three indicators: affect, open communication and group cohesion. 
- "the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships.” (Williams, Short, Christie, 1976)
- “the degree to which a person is perceived as a ‘real person’ in
mediated communication" (Gunawardena, 1995)
- "definitions of social presence tend to lie on a continuum where a focus on interpersonal emotional connection between communicators is on one end and a focus on if someone is perceived as being ‘present’, ‘there’ or ‘real’ at the other end" (Lowenthal, 2011)

Social Presence 

To cope with the awareness of mortality that continually exists in human cognition, and more so when threatened, one sustains faith in worldviews and self-esteem to manage the fear and anxiety. Humans' fundamental systems are designed for survival with a flight or fight arousal activation and cognitive awareness that potential danger is omnipresent, unpredictable, and unescapable.  Terror management theory (TMT) posits that ancient civilizations gravitated toward symbolism and meaning, order, documentation, and cultural growth to manage this constant terror. Early in childhood, one is taught the specific social behaviors that illicit good feelings and security, and other unwanted behaviors make the world seem scary and uncertain. Psychological security becomes based on the immortality of familial, cultural, and religious groups. Moreover, the fear of mortality drives in-group/out-group biases and self-serving behavior.

Terror Management Theory

Humans have evolved to have up to 150 stable, meaningful relationships at a time (the growth of the neocortex is likely responsible). 150 is also the approximately optimal size for a human community. Humans can remember important information of up to 150 group members (such as which are likely cheaters and which are most likely to return a favor). Early tribes often splintered into different sects shortly after suprassing 150 members.

Rule of 150

It describes how our most important associations with religious, political, national, and occupational groups provide us with a sense of belonging, worth and shapes our thinking of people in/outside of these groups. Developed by Henri Tajfel, a polish jew who ended up in a Nazi prisoner of war camp during WWII. 

Social Identity Theory

In addition to physical needs for survival, humans also have social motives that shape our thinking, relationships, and emotions. When our motives are fulfilled we will tend to feel good, and when they are not, we will tend to feel stressed or unhappy. Some major social motives are:
- belonging
- predicting others' behavior accurately
- control
- self-enhancement (a need to matter)
- trust

Social motives

An emotion is a subjective state of being, often described as a feeling. It is typically an intense, affective state that occurs consciously and intentionally in response to a specific experience. Emotions arise from the interplay of four key components: a subjective experience, an outward expression, a cognitive appraisal of the situation, and physiological responses.

Emotion

People have two emotional systems: 
- Disposition system : governs excitement and enthusiasm
- Surveillance system : governs anxiety, stress and fear

Affective Intelligence Theory

standing by previous conclusions even if new evidence shows we should not

Belief Perseverance 

Attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors. In social psychology, this often involves determining whether a behavior is due to internal factors, such as personality and character (a dispositional attribution), or external factors, such as the environment and social context (a situational attribution).

Attribution

Refer to shared socially determined consensual expectation regarding appropriate and acceptable behavior in a given context. Social norms carry an evaluative quality, leading to negative judgment for those who violate them without a valid explanation.

Social Norms

In social psychology, prejudice refers to the attitudes and feelings held toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular social group. While these attitudes are often negative and problematic, they can also be positive, such as having favorable feelings for people who belong to a group one identifies with.

Prejudice in Social Psychology

An attitude is a person's evaluation of an object, an idea, or another person. These evaluations can be either positive or negative (favorable or unfavorable) and are comprised of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.

Attitude

Situationism is the perspective, commonly held by social psychologists, that an individual's behavior is dictated by their immediate environment and surrounding circumstances. This view emphasizes external, situational factors over internal traits.

Situationism

Which theory in social psychology explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into groups, influencing their behavior and attitudes?

Which theory in social psychology focuses on the idea that people are motivated to maintain a positive self-concept and social identity?

Which theory in social psychology suggests that people conform to the behavior of others in order to be accepted or liked by them?

Which theory in social psychology explains how individuals' behaviors are influenced by their roles within a group or society?

The presence of other people, whether real or perceived, significantly impacts an individual's actions, thoughts, and feelings. A core principle in social psychology is that individuals often adapt their behavior to conform to the social situation they are in. This adjustment is particularly evident when a person is in a new or uncertain environment, where they look to others for cues on how to act.

Influence of Social Presence on Behavior

A primary driver of human behavior is the motivation to feel good about oneself and maintain a positive self-esteem. People generally view themselves as good and above average on desirable traits. When behavior, attitudes, or beliefs threaten this positive self-image, it can trigger psychological processes aimed at protecting self-esteem.

Motivation to Maintain Positive Self-Esteem

Persuasion and social influence constitute a major subfield within social psychology. Persuasion, in particular, is one of the most heavily researched topics in the discipline, providing a wealth of information on how individuals can be influenced by others.

Persuasion and Social Influence as a Field of Study

Aggression is defined as any behavior intended to cause harm or pain to another person. It is a core topic in social psychology, encompassing a range of actions with different underlying motivations.

Aggression

- Self-categorization theory
- Social Motives
- Social Identity Theory
- Honneth's theory of social recognition
- Social proof 
- Autism as "mind-blindness"
- Social presence theory 
- Terror management theory
- Rule of 150
- Attribution theory
- Emotion
- Social Influence
- Situationism
- Social roles and Social Role Theory
- Social norms
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- Attitudes and Persuasion
- Aggression
- Prosocial behavior

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

University of Chicago

Columbia University

New York University

Google

Michigan State University

Arizona State University

University of California, Davis

Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. A key focus is on how people conceptualize and interpret situations, and how these interpretations, along with other situational variables, interact to influence behavior within a social context. The field examines how people affect one another, emphasizing the power of the situation in shaping human actions, and explores all facets of personality and social interaction, particularly the influence of interpersonal and group relationships.

Social psychology

Aronson, Elliot, and Joshua Aronson. The Social Animal. Worth Publishers, Macmillan Learning, 2018.

The Social Animal

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

- Organizations
- Articles
- Books
- Newspapers
- Dictionaries

Social Psychology References

Theories and Focuses of Social psychology

The social psychology discipline has intensively studied how situations impact human states including the study of attitude and behavioral consistency, which are the common variables that UX researchers study. Overall, understanding and applying social psychology theories would help UX researchers and designers create products for specific situations and human states. 

Social Psychology and UX Research 


Social Psychological Research Examples

As per the biopsychosocial model, the biology, psychology, and social elements of a person interact, which influences that person's health.

Biopsychosocial Model

Which of the following topics DO NOT fall under social psychology?

Which of the following best describes the focus of social psychology?

Which of the following scenarios best illustrates the concept of social psychology?

Which of the following research questions would a social psychologist most likely investigate?

Important figures in social psychology include: 
- Philip Zimbardo
- Leon Festinger
- Stanley Milgram
- Solomon Asch

Important Figures in Social Psychology

Social psychology examines topics from two primary perspectives: the intrapersonal level, which concerns processes within the individual, and the interpersonal level, which deals with interactions and relationships between people, including dyads and groups.

Social Psychology Focuses

Social cognition refers to the ways in which individuals think about themselves and others. As a key intrapersonal topic in social psychology, it focuses on the mental processes involved in perceiving, interpreting, and remembering information about the social world.

Social Cognition

Human behavior is understood as the result of an interaction between two main types of influences: situational factors, such as cultural norms and the presence of others, and personal factors, which include individual personality characteristics.

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