A social group in social psychology is a board term that can include gender, nationality, social class, race, religion, sexual orientation, and many other. An individual can be a member of many social groups and is not confined in one. 

Social Group

A stereotype is an overgeneralized belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, without regard for their individual characteristics. These beliefs are then applied broadly to all members of that group, ignoring individual differences.

Stereotype in Social Psychology

There are many types of prejudice and discrimination in our society. Here are only some examples of such types, rather than an exhaustive list:

- Racism
- Sexism
- Ageism
- Homophobia and Transphobia

Types of Prejudice and Discrimination

What best describes prejudice in social psychology?

Which of the following is an example of prejudice in social psychology?

Which of the following statements best illustrates the concept of prejudice in social psychology?

Which of the following scenarios best exemplifies prejudice in social psychology?

Prejudice and discrimination are frequently the underlying causes of major human conflicts. These biases can escalate to extreme levels of hatred and harm between groups, leading to severe consequences such as crime, war, and genocide.

Prejudice and Discrimination as Root Causes of Human Conflict

Social groups are diverse and can be based on a wide range of characteristics. Common examples include groups defined by gender, race, age, ethnicity, nationality, social class, religion, sexual orientation, and profession. Individuals can, and often do, belong to multiple social groups simultaneously.

Examples of Social Groups

Prejudice and discrimination persist within a society primarily through two interconnected mechanisms: social learning and conformity to social norms. Individuals, particularly children, acquire prejudiced attitudes and beliefs by observing and absorbing information from their social environment. Furthermore, if discriminatory views are widely accepted within a society, normative pressures can compel individuals to adopt these beliefs and behaviors to fit in with their social groups.

Social Learning and Conformity as Causes of Prejudice and Discrimination

The social groups an individual belongs to, such as those based on gender, race, or age, are powerful sources for shaping their personal identity and self-esteem. These affiliations provide a strong sense of self and contribute significantly to how individuals value themselves.

Role of Social Groups in Identity and Self-Esteem

Prejudice can serve a psychological function by enhancing an individual's self-esteem. This occurs because identifying with an in-group and holding positive views of it, often at the expense of an out-group, helps individuals maintain a positive self-concept and protect their group identity from perceived threats.

Prejudice as a Self-Esteem Function

An out-group is a social group with which an individual does not identify. In the context of intergroup relations, prejudice and negative evaluations are frequently directed toward members of an out-group.

Out-group

Prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory actions are often founded on a person's social identity. Common bases for such negative treatment include gender, race, ethnicity, social class, and sexual orientation, among other group affiliations.

Bases for Prejudice and Discrimination

In social psychology, prejudice refers to the attitudes and feelings held toward an individual based solely on their membership in a particular social group. While these attitudes are often negative and problematic, they can also be positive, such as having favorable feelings for people who belong to a group one identifies with.

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- Self-categorization theory
- Social Motives
- Social Identity Theory
- Honneth's theory of social recognition
- Social proof 
- Autism as "mind-blindness"
- Social presence theory 
- Terror management theory
- Rule of 150
- Attribution theory
- Emotion
- Social Influence
- Situationism
- Social roles and Social Role Theory
- Social norms
- Prejudice and Discrimination
- Attitudes and Persuasion
- Aggression
- Prosocial behavior

Theories and Focuses of Social psychology

Interpersonal topics in social psychology pertain to the interactions and relationships involving dyads and groups. Key areas of study include helping behaviors, aggression, prejudice and discrimination, attraction and close relationships, as well as group and intergroup processes.

Interpersonal Topics in Social Psychology

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

It is an ordinary and normal experience to reduce experience from "I" and "me" to "us" and "we". The self then becomes defined in terms of other persons, instead of a singular, experiencing self. Sometimes the self identifies almost (if not) entirely with a class against another and is subjectively experienced through a social collective.

Self-categorization theory (Turner, Hoggs, Oakes, Reicher, and Wetherell 1987)

- 1) Love: recognition through relationships of strong emotional attachment from a small number of people (lovers, family, friends)

- 2) Rights: recognition from the respect that political, social and civil rights (abilities) provide through their enabling of an individual

- 3) Solidarity: recognition from the social defined worth of an individuals characteristics 

Axel Honneth's Theory of Recognition (a threefold conceptualization of intersubjective recognition)

- “the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as ‘real people’” (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes, & Vaughan, 2001). 
Social Presence is evident through three indicators: affect, open communication and group cohesion. 
- "the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships.” (Williams, Short, Christie, 1976)
- “the degree to which a person is perceived as a ‘real person’ in
mediated communication" (Gunawardena, 1995)
- "definitions of social presence tend to lie on a continuum where a focus on interpersonal emotional connection between communicators is on one end and a focus on if someone is perceived as being ‘present’, ‘there’ or ‘real’ at the other end" (Lowenthal, 2011)

Social Presence 

To cope with the awareness of mortality that continually exists in human cognition, and more so when threatened, one sustains faith in worldviews and self-esteem to manage the fear and anxiety. Humans' fundamental systems are designed for survival with a flight or fight arousal activation and cognitive awareness that potential danger is omnipresent, unpredictable, and unescapable.  Terror management theory (TMT) posits that ancient civilizations gravitated toward symbolism and meaning, order, documentation, and cultural growth to manage this constant terror. Early in childhood, one is taught the specific social behaviors that illicit good feelings and security, and other unwanted behaviors make the world seem scary and uncertain. Psychological security becomes based on the immortality of familial, cultural, and religious groups. Moreover, the fear of mortality drives in-group/out-group biases and self-serving behavior.

Terror Management Theory

Humans have evolved to have up to 150 stable, meaningful relationships at a time (the growth of the neocortex is likely responsible). 150 is also the approximately optimal size for a human community. Humans can remember important information of up to 150 group members (such as which are likely cheaters and which are most likely to return a favor). Early tribes often splintered into different sects shortly after suprassing 150 members.

Rule of 150

It describes how our most important associations with religious, political, national, and occupational groups provide us with a sense of belonging, worth and shapes our thinking of people in/outside of these groups. Developed by Henri Tajfel, a polish jew who ended up in a Nazi prisoner of war camp during WWII. 

Social Identity Theory

In addition to physical needs for survival, humans also have social motives that shape our thinking, relationships, and emotions. When our motives are fulfilled we will tend to feel good, and when they are not, we will tend to feel stressed or unhappy. Some major social motives are:
- belonging
- predicting others' behavior accurately
- control
- self-enhancement (a need to matter)
- trust

Social motives

An emotion is a subjective state of being, often described as a feeling. It is typically an intense, affective state that occurs consciously and intentionally in response to a specific experience. Emotions arise from the interplay of four key components: a subjective experience, an outward expression, a cognitive appraisal of the situation, and physiological responses.

Emotion

People have two emotional systems: 
- Disposition system : governs excitement and enthusiasm
- Surveillance system : governs anxiety, stress and fear

Affective Intelligence Theory

standing by previous conclusions even if new evidence shows we should not

Belief Perseverance 

Attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or behaviors. In social psychology, this often involves determining whether a behavior is due to internal factors, such as personality and character (a dispositional attribution), or external factors, such as the environment and social context (a situational attribution).

Attribution

Refer to shared socially determined consensual expectation regarding appropriate and acceptable behavior in a given context. Social norms carry an evaluative quality, leading to negative judgment for those who violate them without a valid explanation.

Social Norms

Prejudice in Social Psychology

An attitude is a person's evaluation of an object, an idea, or another person. These evaluations can be either positive or negative (favorable or unfavorable) and are comprised of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components.

Attitude

Situationism is the perspective, commonly held by social psychologists, that an individual's behavior is dictated by their immediate environment and surrounding circumstances. This view emphasizes external, situational factors over internal traits.

Situationism

Which theory in social psychology explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into groups, influencing their behavior and attitudes?

Which theory in social psychology focuses on the idea that people are motivated to maintain a positive self-concept and social identity?

Which theory in social psychology suggests that people conform to the behavior of others in order to be accepted or liked by them?

Which theory in social psychology explains how individuals' behaviors are influenced by their roles within a group or society?

The presence of other people, whether real or perceived, significantly impacts an individual's actions, thoughts, and feelings. A core principle in social psychology is that individuals often adapt their behavior to conform to the social situation they are in. This adjustment is particularly evident when a person is in a new or uncertain environment, where they look to others for cues on how to act.

Influence of Social Presence on Behavior

A primary driver of human behavior is the motivation to feel good about oneself and maintain a positive self-esteem. People generally view themselves as good and above average on desirable traits. When behavior, attitudes, or beliefs threaten this positive self-image, it can trigger psychological processes aimed at protecting self-esteem.

Motivation to Maintain Positive Self-Esteem

Persuasion and social influence constitute a major subfield within social psychology. Persuasion, in particular, is one of the most heavily researched topics in the discipline, providing a wealth of information on how individuals can be influenced by others.

Persuasion and Social Influence as a Field of Study

Aggression is defined as any behavior intended to cause harm or pain to another person. It is a core topic in social psychology, encompassing a range of actions with different underlying motivations.

Aggression

Social influence refers to the power of a social situation to alter an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This phenomenon, driven by real or imagined pressure from others, is demonstrated through key topics such as conformity, obedience, and group processes.

Social Influence

Prosocial behavior is defined as any voluntary action performed with the specific intention of benefiting another person or group. It raises the question of whether such acts are motivated solely by personal benefits, like feeling good, or if other reasons, such as altruism, are at play.

Prosocial Behavior

Discrimination is defined as an action or behavior towards an individual that results from their membership in a particular group. While typically discussed as a negative and oppressive act, such as exclusion, discrimination can also manifest positively through preferential treatment for individuals who are part of one's own group.

Discrimination in Social Psychology

Social networks are social structures consisting of interconnected patterns of relationships among different individuals.

Social Network 

While social psychology often examines negative behaviors, it also delves into positive social interactions such as what draws people together. The study of love and attraction explores the key questions of relationship formation, including the situational factors that make relationships more likely, the universal traits people find appealing, the different classifications of love, and theories that explain how relationships are initiated, sustained, and sometimes ended.

Love and Attraction

Physical proximity is the single most influential factor in determining the formation of friendships and romantic relationships. People are significantly more likely to build relationships with individuals they encounter frequently simply because regular contact provides more opportunities for interaction and getting to know one another.

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