- Availability bias
- Negativity bias
- Base rate neglect
- Confirmation bias
- Status quo bias
- Framing effect
- Belief bias
- Hindsight bias
- Propaganda effect
- Bias blind spot
- Egocentric bias
- Fundamental Attribution Error
- Motivated reasoning
- Group-centric bias
- Third person effect
- Cross-group bias
- Ingroup bias
- Memory bias
- Prior Belief bias
- Bias Blind spots


List of biases (and behavioral effects)

Humans (and other animals) are considered cognitive misers. This is some being that conserves mental energy by simplifying the complexity of cognition. It leads to taking mental shortcuts  (heuristics) which can bias behavior.

Cognitive Misers

A primary drawback of relying on intuition is that intuitive judgments are frequently incorrect. This vulnerability arises because instinctual decisions are driven by cognitive and motivational biases rather than being grounded in logical reasoning, objective facts, or scientific evidence.

Limitations of Intuition

Which of the following best describes the predictable behavioral outcome of relying on mental shortcuts when reasoning under uncertainty?

Using heuristics in reasoning under uncertainty leads to predictable biases in behavior.  

University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

Google

Pepperdine University

The holding of a viewpoint, favorable or unfavorable, about a idea, person, or group, that is unwarranted given available information

Bias

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that people rely on to simplify the complex task of forming and maintaining beliefs. Because forming detailed and accurate beliefs requires extensive observation, memory, and analysis, individuals use these efficient cognitive strategies. However, relying on heuristics can sometimes lead to incorrect conclusions.

Heuristics

Kahneman, Daniel. Thinking, Fast and Slow. Nota, 2013.

Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman

https://kpu.pressbooks.pub/psychmethods4e/

KPU Research Methods in Psychology - 4th American Edition

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

A preconceived notion, often negative, held by an individual or group against another individual or group. Typically prejudice is held against a group due to one or more immutable characteristics, activities, or beliefs that characterize that group.

Prejudice

Implicit Bias refers to beliefs or attitudes toward a group of people that are outside of one's conscious thinking.

Implicit Bias

Cognitive Bias

The use of heuristics is often triggered when certain conditions are met. These mental shortcuts are typically employed in situations characterized by: information overload, time constraints for decision-making, the low importance of the decision, a scarcity of information, or the spontaneous emergence of a suitable heuristic.

Conditions for Heuristic Usage

Our behavior is largely due to factors out of our control and awareness (such as heuristics). However, when we are asked to explain our behaviors, we readily provide reasoning for it while reconstructing the event. It often stems from wanting to look good to ourselves and to others.

Self-justification

- Substituting questions
- Representative heuristic 
- Availability heuristic
- Affect heuristic
- Anchoring 
- Stereotype
- Self-Based Heuristic (SBH)
- Frugal Cognitive Heuristic
- Bandwagon heuristic
- Endorsement heuristic
- Working backwards

Types of heuristics

A number of errors in decision-making may result from an over-reliance on heuristics. These result in cognitive biases:
* Anchoring bias
* Confirmation bias
* Hindsight bias
* Representative bias
* Availability bias

Pitfalls to Problem Solving

A hiring manager has 200 applications for a job but only one hour to create a shortlist. They decide to only review applications from candidates who graduated from the same university they attended. Which of the following statements best evaluates this problem-solving approach?

A common example of relying on heuristics is the tendency to assume a belief is true simply because it is widely shared and makes intuitive sense. This mental shortcut is especially persuasive when the belief is endorsed by perceived experts, illustrating how individuals can adopt conclusions without conducting their own thorough empirical analysis.

Widely Shared Beliefs as an Example of Heuristics

Confirmation bias is the cognitive tendency to selectively focus on cases that validate our pre-existing intuitive beliefs while actively disregarding or forgetting cases that contradict them. This mental shortcut leads individuals to reinforce incorrect assumptions by ignoring disconfirming evidence.

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