- Coiled lengths of DNA that contain genes
- Found within the cell nucleus 

Chromosome

- Nuclear Receptor Subfamily 3 Group C Member 1 (NR3C1) encodes glucocorticoid receptor.
   - Can function as a transcription factor that binds to glucocorticoid response elements in the promoters of glucocorticoid responsive genes to activate their transcription.
    - Can function as a regulator of other transcription factors.
- It is involved in inflammatory responses, cellular proliferation, and differentiation in target tissues.
- Mutations in this gene are associated with generalized glucocorticoid resistance.

NR3C1 Gene

The manipulation of genetic material, by replacing defective genes or introducing new genes, to treat or prevent disease. Vectors are used to transport DNA into cells.

Gene therapy

Polygenic refers to traits that are controlled by multiple genes (i.e. height, skin color, weight). 

Polygenic

Traits are characteristics of an individual that are at least partially controlled by genes. While commonly associated with observable physical attributes like eye or hair color, the concept of traits also extends to non-physical characteristics, including behavioral patterns, personality, and temperament. The complete set of an individual's observable traits, both physical and behavioral, constitutes their phenotype.

Traits

Two identical twins, who share the exact same genetic makeup, were separated at birth and raised in significantly different environments. As adults, Twin A is outgoing and confident, while Twin B is shy and anxious. Based on the modern understanding of how genes influence traits, what is the most likely explanation for this difference in their psychological characteristics?

Using your understanding of how genetic and environmental factors interact, explain the most likely reason for the different psychological outcomes in the following scenario.

Analysis of Twin Outcomes

An allele is a specific version or variation of a gene. While a single gene may provide the code for a general trait, such as hair color, the different alleles of that gene determine the specific variation of the trait that an individual expresses.

Alleles

A mutation is a sudden, permanent change in a sequence of DNA. Mutations serve as a primary source for harmful genes, such as the one causing Phenylketonuria (PKU). While many mutations can be detrimental or lethal, they can occasionally be beneficial, conferring an advantage to an individual that enhances their survival and reproductive success compared to others.

Mutation

Genes are specific sequences of DNA that provide the code for particular traits. These traits can be both physical and psychological characteristics, and their ultimate expression is determined by the interplay between genetics and environmental factors.

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- The study of heredity
- Much of the history of genetics is due to studies on microbial systems.
- The field of genetics was founded on the discovery of DNA and that it is the molecule required for heredity.

Genetics

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a helix-shaped molecule composed of nucleotide base pairs. It serves as the genetic material that constitutes long strings known as chromosomes.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Different structural units in genetics include:
- Chromosomes
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Genes
- Alleles

Structural Units in Human Genetics

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., & Lovett, M. D. (2020, April 22). Psychology (2nd ed.). OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction

OpenStax Psychology (2nd ed.) Textbook

Genes

Genetics Library

Microbial genetics is the study of the microbial cell genetic storage in the form DNA and its mechanisms of replication and expression.

Microbial Genetics

Genetic engineering involves editing and changing DNA from different organisms to observe specific phenotypes.

Genetic Engineering

- Nucleic Acid Probing
- Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
- Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Analysis
- Southern Blots
- Microarray Analysis

Methods for Visualizing DNA

- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
- DNA Sequencing

Amplification-Based DNA Analyses

A researcher is examining a double-stranded, helix-shaped molecule of genetic material. They determine that in a specific segment, 30% of the nucleotide bases are adenine. Based on the structural rules of how these bases pair together, what percentage of the bases in this segment should be guanine?

An individual's genotype is their complete genetic makeup, comprising the genetic material inherited from both parents. This genetic blueprint is established at conception through the combination of DNA from the sperm and the egg.

Genotype

Chromosomes are long, string-like structures composed of the genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

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